Year: 2025

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Abdul Hamid II

The Russian envoy presented preconditions and requested their immediate signing; otherwise, the Russian armies would advance and occupy Istanbul, leaving the Ottomans with no choice but to sign.
The treaty stipulated:

1 – The establishment of borders for Montenegro to resolve the dispute, granting this principality independence.

2 – The Principality of Serbia gains independence and acquires additional territories.

3 – Bulgaria achieves administrative self-governance, paying a specified amount to the Ottoman Empire, with state officials and soldiers being exclusively Christians appointed by the Ottomans and Russians. The prince is elected by the inhabitants, and the Ottomans withdraw their troops completely from Bulgaria. The borders are to be defined.

4 – Romania is granted full independence.

5 – The Sublime Porte commits to protecting Armenians and Christians from Kurds and Circassians.

6 – The Sublime Porte will reform the conditions for Christians on the island of Crete.

7- The Ottoman state is to pay a war indemnity of 250 million gold lira, and Russia may receive territories in exchange for this amount.

8- The straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) will remain open to Russian ships in both peace and war.

9 – Muslims in Bulgaria are permitted to migrate to any part of the state they desire.

Thus, the fragmentation of state properties in Europe took place, even though Bulgaria’s expansion caused dissatisfaction among other Balkan countries like Austria, Greece, and Serbia. Moreover, Britain was unhappy with the growing Russian influence in the Balkans and was ready to challenge Russia. In June 1878, Britain obtained the right from the Ottoman Empire to occupy and manage the island of Cyprus, on the condition that it would stay under Ottoman control. In return, Britain agreed to protect the state’s properties in Asia from any further Russian threats, as long as the Sultan from Aleppo promised to carry out necessary reforms in his Asian regions in cooperation with Britain. Additionally, Britain promised to leave Cyprus if the Russians withdrew from the territories they held in Asia.

Sultan Abdul Hamid was initially not pleased with entering this war, which is why Britain supported him. This led to another conference (the Berlin Conference) to ease the situation. He did not approve the treaty and engaged in intense political and diplomatic efforts. The effects of the San Stefano Treaty, along with the fear of Russia competing with Britain, helped divert Russia’s attention from the war. He managed to secure gains for the state and reduced the losses outlined in the first treaty. The events surrounding both treaties showcased Sultan Abdul Hamid’s political genius, which was evident in creating a rift between Russia and Germany as well.

The German Emperor “Wilhelm II” mentioned in his memoirs:

I had a conversation with one of the senior commanders who served in the imperial court during the reign of “Alexander II”, the Tsar of Russia, about the relations between the Russian and German courts, as well as between the two armies and countries. I told this commander: I see a definite shift in these relations. He replied: The blame lies with the Berlin Conference! That was a major mistake made by (Bismarck) as it destroyed the old friendship we had and eroded Germany’s trust with the Russian court and government. It made the army feel it had suffered a great injustice after the bloody war it fought in 1877.

The Berlin Conference (1305 AH /1887):

The major powers (at the time) attended the conference (England, France, Germany, and Austria). Discussions were held regarding the amendment of the San Stefano Treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, as the involved countries opposed this treaty because it did not align with their strategic interests. The conference participants agreed to modify the San Stefano Treaty. The Berlin Treaty was then established, which included the following terms:

1 – The independence of Bulgaria, with adjustments to its borders, and the establishment of a province named Eastern Rumelia in the southern Balkans, which would be under the political and military sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. A Christian governor would be appointed for five years by agreement of the states, and Russia would maintain a military presence in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, limited to fifty thousand soldiers.

2 – Greece’s borders were slightly extended to the north, noting that Greece did not participate in the fighting, and the San Stefano Treaty did not include any of its territory.

3 – The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria.

4 – The annexation of Bessarabia by Russia after it was taken from Romania, along with the inclusion of the Dobruja region and some islands to Romania, granting it full independence.

5- The independence of Serbia and Montenegro.

6- The annexation of the cities of Kars, Ardahan, and Batumi to Russia.

7- The conference decided to maintain the war indemnity established by the Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottoman Empire, amounting to 250 million gold lira.

8- The Sublime Porte pledged to accept all its subjects’ testimonies in court without discrimination based on religion.

9- Approval to improve the conditions of Christians on the island of Crete.

The German Chancellor Bismarck was the one who called for the conference, fearing that Britain’s opposition to Russia could lead to a general European war and threaten the German Empire, which he had worked hard to establish. Therefore, he invited the great powers (at the time) to the conference in Berlin to review the Treaty of San Stefano and settle the outcomes of the Russo-Turkish War.

Some historians have noted that behind the scenes of the Berlin Conference, Bismarck proposed dividing the Ottoman Empire for the sake of European peace. He offered Britain Egypt, France Tunisia, and the Levant, Austria Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia the Bosporus and Dardanelles, among other possessions of the Sultan. However, these proposals were not included in the conference’s resolutions. [Footnote a]

The Berlin Conference marked a significant decline for the Ottoman Empire, which was forced to give up large areas of its territory. It also highlights Britain’s and France’s efforts to maintain control over Ottoman possessions. Furthermore, both Britain and France revealed their colonial intentions; France occupied Tunisia in 1881, while Britain took control of Cyprus. Additionally, Britain invaded Egypt in 1882, claiming that its occupation was temporary. As a result of the war between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the Sultan had to adopt the title of Caliph to address the new challenges. He also worked on establishing the Islamic University to unite all Muslims both domestically and abroad. There is no doubt that the Islamic University movement was well-received by Muslims, who believed that the weakness of the Ottoman Empire stemmed from a decline in religious sentiment among Muslims. This perception encouraged enemies of Islam to invade Islamic lands, plundering one country after another. [An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot 6/456-460]

Footnote: Another Berlin Conference took place from 1884 to 1885, during which several of the same colonialists convened to partition Africa using arbitrary borders. Thus, while the author does not provide evidence that Bismarck privately advocated for the division of the Ottoman Empire to serve European interests, it is not unreasonable to assume that he may have made such proposals. This is because of the fact that some of these same colonialists, after invading, brutalising, and plundering Africa, divided the continent as if it were a mere commodity- systematically fragmented Africa to facilitate an agreement on resource sharing, perpetuating exploitation, injustice, and brutality. Therefore, concerning the alleged suggestions to fragment the Ottoman Empire, readers are encouraged to conduct further research to verify the facts.

To the “duly inquisitive” who inquired, “What prompted you to share history of the Ottomans?”

To the “duly inquisitive” who inquired, “What prompted you to share history of the Ottomans?”

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

What prompted us to start this series was an incredible and repugnant nonsense uttered by a French ideologue who says that Africa should show gratitude to France! Gratitude for what exactly? For 147 years of plundering, violence, oppression, exploitation, cruelty, theft, and arrogance? This is why none deserves Imam As-Sadi’s, may Allah have mercy on him, rebuke against the oppressors more than the French Colonialists. He said: “What kind of progress is this? A progress that turns its people into vicious wild animals, marked by oppression, annihilation, and the colonisation of weaker nations while stripping them of their rights?” He also noted that their so-called development is disconnected from submission to Allah and the religion He ordained, leading to harm and resulting in savagery and barbarism, with outcomes that bring about destruction, ruin, and unparalleled evils. [1]

The inhabitants of the kingdom were very dark-skinned. Its king Mansa Musa strengthened Islam through what his brother Sulayman had gathered from the lands of Sudan. He built mosques, established congregational prayers and the call to prayer, and brought scholars of the Maliki Mad’hab to his land, ensuring the authority of the the Muslim sultan and seeking understanding of the religion. The ruler of this kingdom was known among the people of Egypt as the King of Takrur, though he would preferred to be called the owner of Mali, as it is the more prestigious title and he was more renowned by it. He was the most powerful among the Muslim kings of Sudan, possessing the largest territory, the greatest army, the strongest might, the most wealth, the best condition, the most formidable against enemies, and the most capable of bestowing gifts. The regions included in this kingdom were Ghana, Zafun, Terinka, Takrur, Singhana, Darmuda, Zaga, Kabra, Kuku amd other regions.

The name given to all these regions was Mali, which served as the base for the provinces of the kingdom, consisting of fourteen provinces with cities, villages, and districts. The kingdom was square-shaped, measuring four months or more in length and the same in width. It was located south of Marrakesh and the interior of the enemy’s territory, extending southwest to the ocean, with its length from Muli to Tora, which is on the coast. Most of the area was inhabited, except for a few places. In the domain of the Sultan of this kingdom, there was a barren land of gold, from which they brought gold every year. The inhabitants of the barren land were untaught disbelievers.

In the northern part of Mali, there were tribes of white Berbers under the rule of their Sultan, namely: Yennayer, Madira, and others. They had leaders who ruled over them, except Yennayer, as they were ruled by kings from among them under the authority of the ruler of Mali. Additionally, in the same region, there were people of different faiths, including some who consume human flesh, some who reverted to Islam, and others who remain in their beliefs. The The kingdom consisted of several palaces surrounded by a wall. A branch of the Nile encircled this city on all four sides. In some areas, it could be waded through when the water was low, while in others, it could only be crossed by boats. The construction of this city was made of clay, similar to the walls of the gardens in Damascus. It was built by layering clay to a height of about two-thirds of a cubit, then left to dry before adding another layer, repeating this process until completion. Its roofs were made of wood and reeds, with most roofs being domes.

All those lands were lush with palm trees, and their mountains were filled with thick wild trees, where a single tree could provide shade for five hundred knights. Their main food sources were rice and a type of grain called ‘quni’, which is a fine, fluffy substance that resembles mustard seeds or is even smaller. It is white, sweetened with honey, then ground and kneaded, and consumed. They also had wheat, which was scarce, and corn, which served as food for both them and their horses, as well as fodder for their animals. They possessed horses of the Tatar Akadish breed, and all their mules were very small in size. Likewise, their cattle, sheep, and donkeys were the finest creatures. They cultivated a plant called ‘qafi’, which consists of thin pods buried in the ground that grew until they become thick. Its taste was similar to taro but distinct from pepper. It grew in the open, and if the king learned that someone has stolen any of it, he would cut off their head and hang it in place of what was taken. This was a tradition passed down through generations. They also grew beans, squash, turnips, onions, garlic, eggplants, and cabbage. However, eggplants and cabbage were rare among them. Wild molokhia also grew there.

They had a variety of garden fruits, particularly the Jiz, which was abundant in their region. Wild trees bearing edible and pleasant fruits also grew there, including a tree called Tadmout that produced something resembling large pods. Inside these pods was a substance similar to fine wheat flour, which is very white and has a delicious taste. When dried, it was used in henna, turning it black like ammonium. They stored this tree for food and firewood. There was also a tree known as Qumi that bore fruit similar to quince, with a delightful taste reminiscent of bananas, and it has seeds that resemble cartilage. There was a tree named Farini that produced fruit similar to lemons, with a taste akin to pears. Inside, it contains a fleshy seed. This seed, when fresh, could be pierced to extract a substance similar to ghee, which was sour. Its seeds were used for making soap. If this ghee like thing was to be consumed, it must be carefully heated. The method involved placing it over a gentle fire, covering it, and allowing it to boil until it reaches a strong simmer. The person managing it should keep a close watch, testing it periodically, and adding small amounts of water gradually while it remains covered until it reached the desired strength. Afterward, it should be left to cool and can be used in cooking like ghee. If the cover is unexpectedly removed, it may bubble over and rise to the ceiling, and in some cases, the heat could ignite a fire that burns the house, or even escalate to a larger fire that could devastate the area. This fat would burn any skin it came into contact with, and it can only be contained in pumpkin shells.

In this region, there were wild fruits that resemble various cultivated fruits, but they were bitter and unpalatable, consumed only by the local Sudanese, as they formed a significant part of their diet. Additionally, salt was available here, unlike in the coastal areas and what is beyond that.

In their deserts, the buffaloes were wild, resembling beasts, and their hunting method involved capturing young ones that they raised at home. When they wished to hunt buffaloes, they took one to the buffaloes’ area so it can see and approach it, becoming familiar with the species. Once it is accustomed, they shoot it with a poisoned arrow, then they cut out the poison spots. A single goat could give birth to seven or eight kids at once. In their deserts, there were various wild animals such as donkeys, cattle, deer, ostriches, and others like them. Elephants, lions, and tigers also existed, but they only harmed those who provoked or disturbed them, and they did not interfere with a person unless surprised. Thety also had an animal called Tirma which is a hermaphrodite, the size of a wolf, and whenever it finds a small human or adolescent at night, it snatches and eats them, but during the day, it does not harm anyone and does not approach a fully grown man. It bellows like a bull when it wants to charge. It also scavenges on the dead and consumes them. Its teeth are like those of a crocodile.

There were enormous crocodiles in the Nile, some measuring over ten arms in length. Its bile was valuable and is taken to the treasury of their king. Elephants were in the neighbouring lands of the disbelievers. The sea in this entire region was abundant, especially in the land of Ghana, where disputes were often brought before their king. It is said that someone was killed by sorcery, whether it be a brother, son, daughter, or sister, the killer is sentenced to retribution, and the sorcerer is executed.

The sultan of this kingdom sits on a large platform in his palace, known as ‘Yinbi,’ with a large ebony throne that resembles a grand council chamber. The platform is adorned with the tusks of elephants on all sides. He possessed weapons made entirely of gold: a sword, a spear, a bow, and a book. He wore a large pair of trousers tailored from about twenty pieces, and no one dares to approach him. Behind him stood around thirty slaves from the Turks and others purchased from Egypt. His commanders sat around him under two large canopies, to his right and left, with notable knights of his army seated nearby.

The king Mansa Musa was asked by an Arab Maliki scholar whether he has enemies, so he said: “Yes, I have fierce enemies in Sudan, similar to the Tartars for you. There is a resemblance between them and the Tartars in that they have broad faces and flat noses, they are skilled in archery, and their horses are swift with flat noses. We have had encounters with them, and they possess great strength in their archery. There are disputes between us and them, and wars occur intermittently”.

He was asked how he came came to power. He replied: “The previous ruler did not believe that the ocean has an end, and he was eager to discover it. He prepared hundreds of ships filled with men, and an equal number filled with gold, water, and provisions sufficient for years. He instructed those on board: ‘Do not return until you reach the end, or until your supplies and water run out’. They set sail, and their absence was prolonged, with no one returning for a long time. Eventually, only one ship returned. We asked their leader about their journey and what they encountered. He said: ‘Yes O Sultan. We traveled for a long time until we came across a strong valley in the depths of the sea. I was the last of those ships. As for the other ships, they advanced, but once they reached that place, they did not return or reappear, and we did not know what happened to them. As for me, I turned back from my position and did not enter that valley’. The Sultan was skeptical of this account. He then prepared two thousand ships, one thousand for himself and the men he took with him, and one thousand for water and provisions. He appointed me as his deputy and sailed into the ocean with those who were with him. That was the last time he was seen, along with all his companions. The kingdom then fell to me”.

It is said that during his transit through Egypt on his way to Hajj, he maintained a consistent pattern in worship and devotion to Allah. He and those with him exhibited similar behavior, dressed well, and displayed tranquility and dignity. He was generous, charitable, and known for his many acts of kindness. He left his homeland with a hundred wasqs of gold, which he spent on his pilgrimage, from his country to Egypt, then in Egypt, and finally to Makkah and Madinah, both on his way there and back.

An Excerpt from “The Mali Kingdom As Narrated By Muslim Geographers” pages 43-61

To be continued…InShaAllah

[1] Excerpt from Al-Adillah al-Qawaatiq Wal-Baraaheen Fee Ib’taal Usool al-Mul’hideen 44