[15] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower if Mercy.

Sultan Salim II

He ascended to the throne on the 9th of Rabi’ al-Awwal in the year 974 AH, yet he was not adequately prepared to safeguard the conquests of his father, Sultan Suleiman. Had it not been for the exceptional minister, the great warrior, and the capable politician, Muhammad Pasha Sokollu, the state would have collapsed. He restored its dignity, instilled fear in the hearts of its enemies, negotiated a peace treaty with Austria, and finalized an agreement in the year 975 AH, corresponding to 1567, which allowed Austria to retain its possessions in Hungary. Additionally, the annual tribute previously established was paid to the state, and the princes of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia acknowledged his authority.

A renewed truce was established with the King of Poland and Charles IX, King of France, in 1569. This period also saw an increase in French consular privileges. Henry, the brother of the King of France, was appointed as the King of Poland in agreement with France, which had begun to emerge as the dominant trading power in the Mediterranean. In accordance with previous treaties, France dispatched Christian missionary missions throughout the regions inhabited by Christians, particularly in the Levant, fostering a sense of affection for France among the Christians of the region, which notably contributed to the weakening of the state.

As French influence spread among the Christian populations, there was a corresponding increase in rebellion and encouragement for revolutions. One of the significant outcomes of this intervention was the preservation of the nationality and language of the Christian minorities. Consequently, when the Ottoman Empire weakened, these groups rose in revolt, demanding independence with the support and backing of Christian European nations.

The conviction of European nations regarding the foreign privileges system, which they considered a legitimate right, prompted France to dispatch troops to assist Venice during its conflict with Sultan Murad IV (1624). Additionally, France sent an ambassador along with a naval fleet to pressure the Ottoman Empire into defining these privileges. However, the Grand Vizier, who still held political authority, informed the ambassador that these treaties were not a significant threat, as they were merely a royal grant. This response led France to withdraw its threats.

The situation was manipulated in an attempt to persuade the Sultan to agree once again to renew the system of privileges in 1673, which exacerbated the issues at hand. Instead of learning from the events that transpired, the Ottoman Empire, under the orders of Sultan Mehmed IV (1648-1687), granted France the right to protect Jerusalem.

The privileges continued to be renewed, with each instance introducing a new restriction on the Sultanate. In the year 1740, the Sultanate granted new commercial privileges to France. However, these privileges faced a significant threat when Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Egypt, leading the Sultanate to suspend their implementation. Nevertheless, Napoleon retreated at a crucial moment to preserve the Sultanate, proposing France’s withdrawal from Egypt in exchange for the renewal of privileges. This agreement was successfully reached on October 9, 1801, when the Sultanate granted a new privilege allowing France freedom of trade and navigation in the Black Sea

The consequences of these privileges were extremely detrimental to the empire. The Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis noted that these privileges undermined the empire’s economy by dismantling the Ottoman tax system, which was designed to protect local trade from foreign competition. Furthermore, these privileges prevented the empire from implementing reform projects and generating new financial resources to address administrative and governance expenses. As a result, the foreign privilege treaties became humiliating charters for the Ottomans, as Europeans were not subject to Ottoman authority, effectively positioning them as a government within the Ottoman government.

An Excerpt from Ad-Dawla Al-Uthmaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot 6/306-308