[23] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Muhammad IV

This sultan was born in the year 1051 AH and assumed responsibility at the age of seven. Europe perceived that the time had come to undermine the Ottoman Empire; thus, a coalition was formed comprising Austria, Poland, Venice, the Knights of Malta, the Pope, and Russia, which was referred to as the “Holy League.” This alliance aimed to counter the Islamic expansion that had approached every household in Eastern Europe due to the valiant efforts of the Ottomans. Consequently, a Crusader assault was launched against the territories of the Ottoman Empire. During this period, the Köprülü family emerged, playing a significant role in repelling enemy attacks and strengthening the state. The Grand Vizier, Mehmed Köprülü, who passed away in 1072 AH (1661 CE), restored the empire’s prestige, and his son, Ahmad Köprülü, followed in his footsteps by refusing to negotiate peace with Austria and Venice. He led an army against Austria and succeeded in capturing the formidable fortress of Nötsch, located east of Vienna, on the 25th of Safar, 1074 AH (September 28, 1663 CE). During the tenure of this Grand Vizier, France sought to draw closer to the Ottoman Empire and renew privileges; however, the Grand Vizier rejected this overture. France then resorted to threats, with King Louis XIV sending a French ambassador along with a naval fleet, which only strengthened the Grand Vizier’s resolve. He asserted, “The privileges were a grant, not a treaty that must be enforced.”

The death of the Grand Vizier, Ahmad Koper Yelli, marked a period of decline for the Ottoman Empire. During this time, Austria launched an attack on Hungary, seizing the fortress of Nohazl, as well as the cities of Pest and Buda. Additionally, the King of Poland invaded the province of Moldavia, while Venetian ships raided the coasts of the Morea and Greece, capturing Athens and Corinth in the year 1097 AH, among other cities.

Sultan Sulayman II

He was born in 1052 AH and ascended to the throne following his brother, Muhammad IV, in 1099 AH. During his reign, the decline of the Ottoman Empire continued, and the hostility of its enemies intensified. Austria seized numerous territories and cities, including Belgrade in 1099 AH, while Venice occupied the eastern Dalmatian coast along with certain areas in Greece. The empire faced a series of defeats during this period. However, a significant figure emerged, Grand Vizier, Mustafa bin Muhammad Köprülü, who followed in his father’s footsteps. He treated Christians with kindness and also imposed severe penalties on anyone who hindered them from practicing their religion [Footnote a], thereby winning the support of the Christian population within the empire. As a result of the fair treatment of Christians, the inhabitants of Morea rose against the Catholic Venetians, driving their army from the region due to the oppression they faced and their forced conversion to Catholicism. They willingly sought the protection of the Ottoman Empire, assured of their religious freedom.

On the 26th of Ramadan in the year 1102 AH, corresponding to June 23, 1691 AD, Sultan Sulayman II passed away without leaving an heir at the age of 50, having ruled for three years and eight months.

Sultan Ahmad II (1102 – 1106 AH / 1690 – 1694 CE):

He ascended to the throne in 1102 AH following the death of his brother Sulayman II. During his reign, the Grand Vizier Mustafa Koprulu, who was highly beneficial to the Ottoman state, was killed in battle. He was succeeded by the Grand Vizier Gi Ali Pasha Ariji, who proved to be ineffective. The Republic of Venice occupied several islands in the Aegean Sea during this period. Sultan Ahmed II’s reign was brief, concluding in 1106 AH / 1694 CE, characterized by minor skirmishes. Following his death, the throne was inherited by his nephew, Mustapha II, son of Muhammad IV.

Sultan Mustafa II (1106 – 1115 AH / 1694 – 1703 CE):

He was born in 1074 AH, he ascended to the throne in 1106 AH (1694 AD) as the son of Sultan Muhammad IV. During his reign, the Islamic influence began to wane in Eastern Europe, attributed to a decline in religious practice, a weakening of the spirit of Jihad, and the infiltration of defeatist sentiments within the nation. The harshness of the Crusader attacks on the Ottoman territories further exacerbated this situation. Notably, during his rule, the Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1110 AH (1699 CE) near Zagreb along the Danube River with Russia. According to the terms of this treaty, the Ottomans withdrew from Hungary and Transylvania, marking a troubling chapter in the history of some Ottoman rulers, as they retreated from battles, leaving Muslims vulnerable to an adversary devoid of compassion and mercy. Consequently, all the states that had previously paid tribute began to refuse payment, while Christian nations united against the Ottomans, collaborating to thwart the expansion of the empire and to work towards its division, driven by fears of the spread of Islamic influence. The Ottoman concession of its territories signified the beginning of their withdrawal from Europe and marked the transition into an era of rapid disintegration and decline. Following the intervention of the Janissaries and their demand for the deposition of the Grand Vizier, which the Sultan refused, they resolved to depose him. He passed away four months later.

Sultan Ahmad III (1115 – 1143 AH / 1703 – 1730 CE):

During his reign, the banner of Jihad was raised [Footnote b], and the state succeeded in reclaiming Moldavia and Azov. The struggle against Russia continued, culminating in a significant blow when Ottoman fighters besieged the Russian Tsar and his consort, along with 200 fighters who were on the verge of capture. However, treachery fueled by the allure of wealth led to the lifting of the siege and the estabilishment of the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca in Jumada al-Akhirah in 1123 AH with the Russians. This treaty resulted in the evacuation of the city of Azov to the Russian Crusaders and a commitment not to interfere in the affairs of the Cossacks. Consequently, Sultan Ahmad III dismissed the Grand Vizier, Baltaji Pasha, and the Jihad against the Russians persisted. Meanwhile, the Netherlands and England deemed it in their interest to halt the war, leading to their intervention and the signing of the Treaty of Edirne in 1125 AH / 1716 CE, in which Russia ceded all territories it had seized along the Black Sea coast, while simultaneously relinquishing its payments to the Crimean rulers.

The Ottomans achieved victory over the Venetians in the west, capturing Crete and several other islands. In response, the Venetians sought assistance from Austria to reclaim their lost territories from the Ottoman Empire, but the request was denied. This led to a conflict between the two parties, resulting in an Austrian victory and the fall of Belgrade in 1717. Subsequently, a peace treaty was established in 1718, facilitated by the mediation of Britain and the Netherlands. A peace treaty was concluded in Sarovitz, which resulted in the Austrians seizing Belgrade, a significant portion of Serbian territory, and part of Wallachia. The coasts of Dalmatia (eastern Adriatic) were retained by Venice, while the region of Morea was returned to the Ottomans. Additionally, the treaty allowed Catholic clergy to regain their former privileges in Ottoman lands, enabling both the clergy and Austria to intervene in Ottoman affairs under the pretext of protection. A separate agreement stipulated the freedom of trade for merchants from the signatory states of the treaty. Consequently, Austria acquired the right to protect foreign traders within the Ottoman Empire.

When the Russians observed the weakness of the Ottomans, they requested permission for traders and pilgrims to Jerusalem to pass through Ottoman territories without paying any fees. The Ottomans agreed to this request. Meanwhile, the Ottomans occupied Armenia and Georgia, while Peter the Great seized Dagestan and the western shores of the Caspian Sea due to the decline of the Safavid state. A potential war between the two sides was averted thanks to French mediation at Russia’s request, allowing each party to maintain control over the territories they had entered without interference from the other. However, the Safavids rallied and engaged the Ottomans in battle, but they were defeated, losing Tabriz, Hamadan, and several fortresses. A peace treaty was subsequently established in 1140 AH / 1728 AD. During this period, the Janissaries revolted, deposing the caliph and installing his nephew in his place.

Foreign Influence

A small number of Ottomans advocated for reforms aimed at adopting the methods that had enabled Europe to achieve its strength, particularly in military organization and modern weaponry. Damad Ibrahim Pasha, who held the grand vizierate during the reign of Sultan Ahmad III, was the first Ottoman official to recognize the importance of engaging with Europe. He established regular communications with European ambassadors residing in Istanbul and sent Ottoman envoys to European capitals, notably Vienna and Paris, for the first time. The role of these ambassadors extended beyond merely signing trade and diplomatic agreements related to previously established treaties; they were also tasked with providing the state with insights into European diplomacy and military strength. This signified a breach in the Ottoman iron curtain and an acknowledgment of the reality that the Ottomans could no longer ignore the internal developments occurring in Europe. The influence of Europe began to manifest in the construction of palaces, as well as in the extravagance and opulence that people significantly partook in. This prompted the wealthy and the elite to seek to adopt European customs related to furnishings, home decoration, palace construction, and garden creation. The emergence of foreign traditions in their desires and extravagance became increasingly evident. [Footnote c] This period marked the beginning of the modern Ottoman literary movement, characterized by a surge in translation efforts into the Turkish language. Sultan Ahmed also dispatched envoys to France to observe its factories and the achievements of French civilization. Additionally, a printing office was established in Istanbul. [An Excerpt from Ad-Dawlah al-Uthaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhud Wa Asbab As-Suqut 6/339 – 344]

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Footnote a:

Allah said:

لَآ إِكْرَاهَ فِى ٱلدِّينِ قَد تَّبَيَّنَ ٱلرُّشْدُ مِنَ ٱلْغَىِّ فَمَن يَكْفُرْ بِٱلطَّٰغُوتِ وَيُؤْمِنۢ بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدِ ٱسْتَمْسَكَ بِٱلْعُرْوَةِ ٱلْوُثْقَىٰ لَا ٱنفِصَامَ لَهَا وَٱللَّهُ سَمِيعٌ عَلِيمٌ

There is no compulsion in religion. Verily, the Right Path has become distinct from the wrong path. Whoever disbelieves in everything worshipped besides Allah and believes in Allah (by worshipping Him alone and follow Muhammad), then he has grasped the most trustworthy handhold that will never break. And Allah is All-Hearer, All-Knower. [Al-Baqarah 256]

Footnote b:
https://abukhadeejah.com/salafi-shaikh-fawzaan-on-jihaad-in-our-times-and-the-guidelines-of-jihaad-according-to-islam/

Footnote c:
https://abukhadeejah.com/muslim-lifestyles-choices-and-adopting-non-muslim-practices-that-conflict-with-islamic-teachings-islam-4-1/