In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

In 1649, the Puritan theologians John and Eliezer Cartwright sent a memorandum to the British government, urging the implementation of the Jewish restoration from the English people.

This memorandum states: “The English nation and the Dutch population should become the first and most prepared countries to transport the sons and daughters of Israel in their processions to the promised land of their ancestors: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, so that they may inherit their legacy forever.” This memorandum was adopted and supported by Oliver Cromwell, who initiated the return of the Jews to Britain, with backing from Menasseh ben Israel, followed by Chaim Weizmann and Lloyd George. [Footnote a]

Barbara Tuchman stated: England’s Puritanical commitment to the restoration of Israel is undoubtedly rooted in religious motivations. The impetus that drove Cromwell to support the proposal is the same motivation that prompted Lloyd George to take an interest in Weizmann’s proposal a decade later, specifically the assistance that both believed the Jewish people could provide in times of war. Since the time of Cromwell, British interest in Palestine has been primarily motivated by commercial, military, or colonial ambitions, alongside a religious objective rooted in ancient traditions. However, during periods devoid of both motivations—such as the notably secular climate of the eighteenth century—little was accomplished”. The revolutionary renaissance was not limited to beliefs and worship; it also manifested in the literary realm. Notable poets emerged, some of whom predicted the establishment of the state of “Israel.” Among these figures was John Milton. [Footnote b]

William Blake and others

This fertile ground for beliefs and literature gave rise to the “London Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews,” led by Shaftesbury. This organization supported the idea of Jewish revival through human efforts and adopted the slogan “A land without a people for a people without a land.” [Footnote c]

In the nineteenth century, several politicians supported this idea, including Palmerston and William Gladstone. In France, this call found justification from figures such as Napoleon Bonaparte. Despite the significant failure of his efforts to establish a homeland for the Jews in Palestine, the notion was promoted during the reign of Louis XIV. [Footnote d] Under the influence of “Jean Colbert, and later during the reign of Napoleon through his advisor, Laharpe. In America, the early Puritan pilgrims brought Hebrew ideas with them, and among those who embraced the concept of Jewish revival in Palestine was Joseph Smith. [Footnote e] Subsequently, American calls were made by Warder Chrison, Clorinda Minor, and William Blackstone. The settlement movements received backing from American businessmen, including Moses Montefiore and the Rothschild family. [Footnote f]

There are numerous evangelical movements; however, it is essential to focus on the most significant ones. One of the most notable movements is Pietism. This religious movement emerged within the church, founded by Philipp Jakob Spener, who gathered a small group to pray and study the Bible in his home to deepen their spiritual lives. This gathering was referred to as the “Pietistic Institute,” and the movement derived its name from this institute. The situation evolved to the establishment of small churches within the Lutheran church in Germany due to the challenges faced by the Lutheran community. Pietism encountered opposition from within the church, prompting Spener to seek a new location where he might find support. His efforts were rewarded when he moved to Berlin, where he formed a friendship with Frederick III, which allowed him to influence the university established by Frederick in Halle. Additionally, another individual who followed in Spener’s footsteps was August Hermann Francke, who gathered his peers to study the Bible. He later met Spener, learned the principles of Pietism from him, and subsequently disseminated these teachings among students and educators in Leipzig. [Footnote g]

He faced opposition like his predecessor; however, “Espiner” secured a position for himself at the University of Hull. He began to attract various members of the university community and did not stop there; he established a school for underprivileged children, an orphanage, and a Bible institute. The influence of the university extended to Lutheran churches in “Norway,” “Sweden,” and “Denmark.” [Footnote h]

The movement of strengthening spread to America, and the efforts of the reformers did not stop with Frank. Among those who studied under him at the university was Zinzendorf, who had developed a religious awareness from a young age. He joined the Moravians, who established the community of Herrnhut, and regarded them as soldiers of Christ advancing His message both domestically and internationally. Despite his attempts to remain connected to the Lutheran Church, his situation did not improve, as the Moravians insisted on separating and being recognized as an independent denomination. Upon their return to Saxony, he acknowledged and supported them. His support went beyond mere assistance; he donated all his wealth to their cause. [Footnote i] This movement emerged as a response to the deteriorating religious conditions within the Church of England at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The rationalist trend permeated all levels of religious thinkers, leading to Christianity being perceived merely as a moral framework. The Methodist movement was founded by John Wesley and his brother Charles. [Footnote j] To uphold the spirit of reform, both individuals joined the Holy Club, along with George Whitefield. This club was dedicated to prayer, fasting, and Bible study. Its members took a meticulous and systematic approach to religious principles, often visiting the sick and imprisoned. Their peers mockingly referred to them as the Methodists due to their strict practices. [Footnote k]

John Wesley encountered the Moravians during his journey to Georgia in America, where he was influenced by their evangelical piety, prompting him to translate some of their hymns into English. Upon returning to England, he met with them at a gathering and experienced a spiritual awakening that convinced him of the possibility of salvation for all through faith in Jesus Christ. He excelled in delivering evangelical sermons to large audiences. In 1739, he, along with his colleagues, established the first Methodist congregation, which subsequently spread throughout Britain, necessitating a central organization. By the end of that year, the central hub was designated as “the Foundation,” serving as a central leadership. The congregations were organized and leaders were appointed, leading to the establishment of annual conferences to oversee the activities and growth of these groups. Wesley had disagreements with the Moravians and also with George Whitefield. This denomination eventually separated from the Church of England in 1748 when Thomas Coke was appointed as the first superintendent of the Methodist Church in America. [Footnote l]

One of the Protestant denominations, governed by distinguished elders who hold equal ranks, is characterized by its division into congregations, each led by its own elder. Adherents follow the Calvinist doctrine and are referred to outside English-speaking countries as “Reformed Churches” or “Correct Churches.” There is a notable distinction between this denomination and the Lutheran tradition; the Reformed Church does not believe in transubstantiation—neither in a spiritual nor a symbolic sense. Instead, it views the act of partaking in bread and wine as a commemoration of the Last Supper shared by Christ and his disciples, and it has also rejected certain church rituals. The Bible is regarded as the ultimate authority in religious matters, with a focus on evangelical practices related to baptism and the Eucharist. [Footnote m]

Puritanism emerged with the aim of returning to the original principles of Christianity. It appeared in England during the 16th and 17th centuries, influenced by Calvinism. During the reign of Queen Mary Tudor, Puritans faced persecution from Catholics, prompting many of its followers to flee to Switzerland, where they established a congregation under the leadership of John Knox. [Footnote n] Upon her return to England, efforts were made to instill their ideas in her. A Presbyterian church was established in Scotland, influenced by John Knox, and Puritanism spread through the distribution of pamphlets and preaching. If we examine these evangelical denominations, we can identify several commonalities among them, the most significant of which include: Reliance solely on the Bible, as it is well-known that the authoritative sources in Christianity are: a) The Bible. b) Church councils. The interpretation of the Bible was traditionally reserved for papal authority, and this monopolization of religious power prompted Martin Luther to oppose the Church, as he advocated for the Bible to be accessible to all, granting everyone the right to interpret it. [Footnote o] Salvation is attained solely through faith, not by works. Those who believe in Christ, recognizing Him as the Son of God who redeemed humanity, have received salvation—exalted be God above what they claim. There is a rejection of the need for a priest among the people; rather, every faithful Christian is considered a priest in their own right. Faith encompasses freedom of thought, education, and doctrine for the believer. This perspective denies any mediation in the relationship between the believer and God, affirming the teachings of Christ alone. Consequently, it dismisses the intercession of the Pope, the veneration of the Virgin Mary, and the worship of angels. Additionally, there is a belief in the millennial reign of Christ upon His second coming. All church rituals are rejected except for the Lord’s Supper and baptism, although there are varying beliefs regarding the specifics of these practices. [Footnote p]

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Footnote a: The Bible and the Sword: 1/137, Non-Jewish Zionism: p. 55, Evangelical Fundamentalism: pp. 41-42.
Oliver Cromwell: Born in 1599 and passed away in 1658, he was the leader of the republic established in England in 1654. He became a member of Parliament in 1628 and proposed a re-organisation of the army. In 1645, he defeated King Charles I and expelled the royalist Presbyterian leaders from Parliament through Pride’s Purge in 1649. He confiscated land from the Irish and granted it to the English. Although he leaned towards religious tolerance, he primarily extended this to Jews and non-Anglican Protestants. Encyclopedia of Politics: 115/5-116, and the Arab World Encyclopedia: 238/19.

Chaim Weizmann was born in 1874 and passed away in 1952. He was a prominent Zionist leader, a chemist, and the first President of the State of Israel. Following Theodor Herzl’s unsuccessful diplomatic efforts to establish a Jewish state within the Ottoman Empire, Weizmann advocated for a more practical approach to Zionism. During World War I, he was appointed as the director of the British Navy’s laboratories, where he played a significant role in the development of the explosive substance acetone. He was also involved in the negotiations between Zionist representatives and the British government, which led to the issuance of the Balfour Declaration. Among his written works is “Trial and Error,” and his correspondence is currently being published in successive volumes. For further reference, see the Dictionary of Zionist Terminology, pages 170-171, the Encyclopedia of Concepts, page 429, and the Encyclopedia of Politics, pages 254/255 onwards.

Lloyd George was born in 1863 and passed away in 1945. He was a prominent British politician known for his eloquent speeches. He represented his constituency for an uninterrupted period of forty-five years. His ministerial career began in 1906 when he was appointed Minister of Trade. During World War I, he became Minister of Munitions in 1915 and later assumed the role of Minister of War following the death of Lord Kitchener in 1916. He negotiated a treaty with Ireland that granted it self-governance. Shortly before his death in 1945, he was bestowed the title of Earl. Refer to: Al-Mawsooa Al-Arabiya Al-Muyassara: 1582/2, and Al-Mawsooa Al-Siyasiya: 5/529.

Footnote b: Barbara Tuchman was born in 1912 and passed away in 1989. She was an American historian who served as a research assistant at the Institute of Pacific Relations from 1934 to 1935. Subsequently, she worked as a journalist for “The Nation,” where she reported on the Spanish Civil War. Tuchman received two Pulitzer Prizes for her non-fiction works in history, philosophy, and the arts. The first award was granted in 1963 for her book “The Guns of August,” which discussed World War I, and the second was awarded in 1972 for “Stilwell and the American Experience in China.” Her notable publications include “The Lost British Policy,” “The Proud Tower,” and “Practicing History,” among others. For further details, refer to the Arab Encyclopedia, page 6/335. Additionally, see her work “The Bible and the Sword,” 1/168-169.

John Milton was born in 1608 and passed away in 1674. He was an English poet who focused on social and political themes in his prose, with some of his ideas contributing to the execution of King Charles I. Milton authored four treatises on divorce and held a significant position during the Cromwellian era. His notable works include “Paradise Lost” and “Paradise Regained,” with the former depicting the rebellion of Satan against God and the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden, while the latter narrates the temptation of Christ. Additionally, he wrote “Samson Agonistes,” a play in the classical Greek style. Most of his works reflect the Puritan era. For further details, refer to the Comprehensive Arabic Encyclopedia, page 2/ 1740

Footnote c: William Blake was born in 1757 and passed away in 1827. He was an English poet and mystic, as well as a renowned artist known for his illustrations and metal engravings. For further information, refer to “Summary of Jewish Thought,” page 430, and the “Arab World Encyclopedia,” volume 5, page 119. Refer to: Evangelical Fundamentalism, p. 45. For further insight into the significance of this organization and its activities, see: The Bible and the Sword, 50/2-065. Shaftesbury: Born in 1801 and passing away in 1885, he was Anthony Ashley Cooper, a British politician and Christian Zionist, and the brother-in-law of Prime Minister Palmerston. He was appointed as a member of Parliament and supported the Conservative Party, serving as the leader of the Evangelical faction. He advocated for Jewish interests and was deeply committed to their cause, presenting a significant document aimed at restoring the Jewish people and addressing the Eastern Question. He initiated a project to direct Jews towards “Palestine” under the auspices of Protestant England and became the president of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Refer to: Encyclopedia of Jews, Judaism, and Zionism, Vol. 2, pp. 256-257. Palestine under the Mandate, p. 10, as cited in Non-Jewish Zionism, p. 91, and Evangelical Fundamentalism, p. 46.

Footnote d: Palmerston: Born in 1784 and passed away in 1865, he was a British Zionist politician who received the title of Lord in 1802. Over the course of fifty years, he held various governmental positions, starting as Minister of War and later serving as Foreign Secretary. He oversaw Britain’s policy against Muhammad Ali Pasha and his son Ibrahim Pasha, and he instructed his ambassador in Istanbul, Ponsonby, to negotiate with the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire regarding the establishment of a Jewish state between Egypt and the Arab East in Palestine. He later took on the role of Minister of the Interior and eventually became Prime Minister. See: Encyclopedia of Politics: 482/1

William Gladstone: Born in 1809 and passing away in 1898, he was a British politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and held the position of Prime Minister in 1868. During his first term, he separated the Anglican Church in Ireland from the state. He was succeeded by Disraeli but returned to the premiership in 1880, serving until 1885. In his fourth term, which spanned 1886 and 1893, he faced opposition from the House of Lords regarding the self-governance bill, leading to his resignation from the premiership in 1894 and his retirement from politics the following year. For further details, refer to “Al-Munjid fi Al-A’lam,” page 392, “Diaries of Her Majesty,” pages 514-515, and “Encyclopedia of Politics,” pages 355/4-0356.

Louis XIV: Born in 1638 and passing away in 1715, he reigned as the King of France from 1661 until 1715. He studied the history of France and its political institutions; however, the events he experienced during his childhood had a significant impact on him. Under his rule, French civilization flourished across various fields, including science, literature, and the arts. In terms of foreign policy, war with Spain resumed after a peace treaty that lasted eight years. Historians have debated the reasons for this conflict, which stemmed from the legacy of his father, Louis XIII. He maintained the throne for an impressive 72 years. Refer to: Al- Mawsoo’ah Al-Arabiya Al-Muyassara: 2/1585, Al-Mawsoo’ah Al-Siyasiya: 532/5 – 535, and Al-Mawsoo’ah Al-Arabiya Al-Alamiya: 237/21.

Footnote e: Jean Colbert was born in 1619 and passed away in 1683. He was a French politician who served as the agent for Cardinal Mazarin, who introduced him to King Louis XIV. In 1661, he gained the loyalty of the Council of State and subsequently took charge of financial matters. By 1665, he was appointed as the overseer of the treasury, and in 1668, he became the Minister of Finance. In 1669, he assumed the role of Minister of Marine. Colbert significantly reduced the national debt, enhanced the naval fleet, and established several academies. However, he faced criticism from industrialists due to his demands for the repayment of treasury debts, the imposition of specific productivity levels, and the introduction of taxes to support the state’s economic policies, which became known as “Colbertism.” Refer to: Encyclopedia of Politics, pages 240-241.

Napoleon III was born in 1808 and passed away in 1873. He served as the Emperor of France from 1852 until 1870. As the brother of Napoleon I, he attempted to overthrow the government of Louis-Philippe in Strasbourg in 1836. He authored works such as “The Napoleonic Ideas” and “The Extinction of Poverty.” Following the revolution of 1848, which led to the establishment of the Second French Republic, he returned to France and was elected to the council. His reign is characterized by significant economic activity and advancements in material and industrial progress. For further details, refer to “Al-Munjid fi al-A’lam,” page 568, “Al-Mawsoo’ah Al-Arabiya Al-Muyassara,” volume 2, page 1813, and “Al-Mawsoo’ah Al-Arabiya Al-Alamiya,” volume 11, pages 25-12.

Refer to: Non-Jewish Zionism: pages 111-112, and Evangelical Fundamentalism: pages 46-47. Joseph Smith: Born in 1805 and passed away in 1844, he was the founder of the Mormon Church, officially known as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In 1830, he established his church and subsequently moved to Kirtland, Ohio, in 1831. He and his followers founded the city of Nauvoo in Illinois, where they enacted a law permitting polygamy. However, in 1890, the church deemed this practice a violation of the law. Refer to: The Arab World Encyclopedia: 124/13.

Footnote f: Born in 1798 in Carbon, he passed away in 1860. He was a Christian Zionist from a wealthy Christian family. In his quest for a stable religious belief, he initially joined a group known as the “Awakened,” later becoming part of the “Mormon” community and other sects. Ultimately, he found his place in Judaism. He attained the position of honorary consul in Jerusalem and began advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine by engaging with the Ottoman authorities. After converting to Judaism, he settled in Jerusalem, although his son accused him of insanity. However, he received support from his friend Mordecai Noah, who filed a lawsuit arguing that Christianity could not deem someone insane solely for converting to Judaism; this lawsuit was ultimately dismissed. For further details, refer to “Christianity and the Torah,” pages 149-150.

Clorinda Maynor: An American fundamentalist with strong religious convictions, she left her wealthy husband and children in Philadelphia to establish a kibbutz in Palestine, anticipating the arrival of the Second Coming of Christ for salvation. However, she returned after seven years of waiting. Refer to Christianity and the Torah: pp. 150-151.

William Blackstone: Born in 1723 and passed away in 1780, he was an English judge, author, and law professor. He served as a member of Parliament and lectured on law at the University of Oxford. His notable works include “Commentaries on the Laws of England,” which received acclaim for providing a comprehensive overview of English law during his time. Refer to: The Arab World Encyclopedia: 60/5-61. Refer to: Evangelical Fundamentalism: pp. 63-67.

Footnote g: For more information on the status of the Lutheran Church, refer to: History of the Church: 5/74. Frederick III: Born in 1515 and passed away in 1576, he reigned from 1559 until 1576. A proponent of Calvinism, he commissioned the documentation of the religious teachings known as the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. See: The Arabic Encyclopedia: 2/1284-1285. Halle, a city located in the province of Prussia, became the capital of the new state of Saxony-Anhalt under Russian occupation. During the Middle Ages, it was governed by the prominent archbishops of Magdeburg. In 1648, it was incorporated into the territory of Brandenburg. Halle is notable for being the site of the first Evangelical congregation. Among its existing structures are the Red Gothic Tower and the Virgin Mary Church, which are situated near significant salt and potash mines. For further details, refer to the previous source: 2/1884

Hermann Franck was born in 1663 and passed away in 1727. He was a Protestant theologian and a German educator who studied philosophy and theology. He served as a professor at the University of Leipzig and later at the University of Halle, where he taught Greek and Eastern languages. Franck opposed the prevailing scholastic methods and favored the instruction of practical scientific subjects. He established educational institutions for orphans and the underprivileged, which became known by his name and significantly influenced educational practices during his time. Refer to the previous source: 2/1281. Leipzig is a city located in the eastern part of central Germany, specifically in the northwestern corner of the German state of Saxony. It serves as a commercial, industrial, and cultural hub, renowned for its large trade fairs. Among its industrial products are wood carvings and various types of scientific instruments. Refer to the previous source: 2/1588-1589, and the Arab World Encyclopedia. 21/ 248/250.

Footnote h: University of Halle: Located in East Germany and named after Martin Luther, it was established in 1694 to serve as a hub for free thought and beneficial scientific study. The university attracted a significant number of professors who had been expelled from older institutions. It expanded its curriculum to include natural sciences, agriculture, economics, law, theology, medicine, as well as subjects relevant to workers and farmers. Refer to: Al-Ma’ir Encyclopedia: 2/1884

Norway is a European country situated on the northwestern edge of the continent, with its capital being Oslo. A significant portion of its northern territory lies above the Arctic Circle, earning it the nickname “Land of the Midnight Sun.” Among its agricultural products are barley, figs, and oats, while its industrial outputs include aluminum and non-crude oil products. For further details, refer to the sources: Al-Mutajid in the flags, page 573; Encyclopedia of Politics 6/ 562-571; and the Arab World Encyclopedia, 25/291-305.

Sweden is an industrial nation located in Northern Europe along the Baltic Sea, with Stockholm as its capital. The country produces various agricultural products, including barley, sugar beets, and wheat. Its industrial outputs encompass items such as aircraft, furniture, and glass. Additionally, Sweden is rich in minerals, including iron, gold, and zinc. For further information, refer to “Al-Munjid fi al-A’lam,” page 317, “Encyclopedia of Politics,” pages 341-347, and “The Arab World Encyclopedia,” volumes 13/277-294.

Denmark is a small kingdom situated in Northern Europe, almost entirely surrounded by water. Its capital city is Copenhagen. The country is renowned for its agricultural products, including potatoes, wheat, and barley, as well as its industrial outputs, such as canned foods and electronic electrical equipment. For further information, refer to Al-Munjid Fil A’lam, pages 239-240, and the Arab World Encyclopedia, 10/398-409.

Footnote i: Zinzendorf was born in 1700 and passed away in 1760. He was a religious and social reformer associated with the German Pietist movement. As the leader of the Moravian Church, he aimed to establish a global Protestant movement. He opposed orthodoxy and founded communities in the Baltic provinces, the Netherlands, England, and North America. For further details, refer to the Major Religions Dictionary, p. 815, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12/921-922.

Moravians are the Czechs, primarily residing in Bohemia and Moravia. They fell under Austrian rule but regained their independence in 1918, leading to the establishment of Czechoslovakia by the Czechs and Slovaks. Subsequently, the Czechs separated from the Slovaks, resulting in the formation of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Moravians were influenced by the Lutheran movement. For further details, refer to the Christian Faith Dictionary, page 488, and the Arab World Encyclopedia, 6/357.

Scania: This name refers to the region inhabited during ancient and medieval times, known as Sconia, located in East and Central Germany. The eastern part was governed by the Wettin family and, in 1871, it became part of the German Empire. Subsequently, it was occupied by the Soviet Union and divided into the districts of Leipzig, Dresden, and Chemnitz.

Footnote j: The Rationalist Movement: This refers to the reliance on reason for acquiring knowledge. Notable figures associated with this movement include Plato, Descartes, and Spinoza. For further details, see the Comprehensive Arabic Encyclopedia, 2/1222. For additional information, refer to Church History, pages 74/5-80.

John Wesley: Born in 1703 and passed away in 1791, he was a Christian clergyman who joined the Church of Christ at Oxford University in 1720. He was ordained in the Church of England in 1728 and became a fellow at Lincoln College in 1729. Wesley was a prominent leader of the Evangelical Revival, a movement within 18th-century Protestantism that emphasized personal faith and good works. He traveled extensively for missionary purposes and preached at numerous gatherings. His significant contributions included organizing the movement through the establishment of societies and convening annual conferences to monitor its progress and discuss doctrinal issues and practices. For more information, see Al-Munjid in the Notables, page 615, the Comprehensive Arabic Encyclopedia, page 1953/2, the Dictionary of Major Religions, page 794, and the Global Arabic Encyclopedia, 27/244-245.

Charles Wesley: Born in 1707 and died in 1788, he was an English clergyman from the Church of England, born in Epworth. He, like his brother, was educated at Oxford University and collaborated with John in leading the Methodist movement. He was well-known for his religious hymns and was ordained as a priest in 1749 after his marriage. He opposed any ideas that sought to separate from the Church of England. For further details, see the Comprehensive Arabic Encyclopedia.

Footnote k: George Whitefield was born in 1714 and passed away in 1770. He was an English Protestant evangelist from Gloucester, England. During his studies at Oxford University in the 1730s, he was influenced by John Wesley. He was ordained as an Anglican priest and became known for his bold and critical sermons. Due to his views, he was barred from preaching in certain Anglican churches. He adopted the Methodist practice of preaching outdoors.

Footnote l: Georgia is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, with its capital being Atlanta. The state is known for its key industrial products, which include transportation equipment, food products, and chemicals. In terms of agriculture, Georgia produces corn, tobacco, and cotton. Historically, it was under British control. For further details, refer to Al-Munjid in Al-A’lam, page 206, the Concise Arab Encyclopedia, 1/662, and the Arab World Encyclopedia, 8/595.

Thomas Cook, born in 1808 and passing away in 1892, was a British businessman who became a Protestant reformer and an advocate for religious moderation. He organized an exploratory trip from Leicester to La Vabre and established a travel agency in Leicester, England, in 1841, which later relocated to London in 1852. His business expanded to include operations in Europe and the United States. For more information, see the Concise Arab Encyclopedia, volume 2, page 1506, and the Arab World Encyclopedia, 20/232.

For additional insights, refer to Church History, pages 81-90, and Christian Sects and Doctrines, pages 178-181. For more extensive information on this denomination, refer to the encyclopedia of American Religions.

Footnote m: This will be discussed in the second chapter of this section; see pages 162-168. For a brief overview, refer to “Differences and Christian Denominations,” pages 182-185. For further information, consult “The Encyclopedia of American Religions, 1/124-143.

Footnote n: Mary Tudor: Born in 1516 and passed away in 1558, she became Queen of England in 1553. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and his wife Catherine. Following her parents’ divorce, she was declared illegitimate and believed she was unworthy of the English throne. However, the Pope refuted these claims. She earned the nickname “Bloody Mary” due to her persecution of her father’s followers.

John Knox: Born in 1505 and died in 1572, he was a prominent leader of the Protestant Reformation in Scotland. He became a Catholic priest in 1536, during a time when the Scottish church was experiencing weakness, relying on his declaration of Christian doctrine. Influenced by the teachings of John Calvin, he was exiled to France during the reign of Mary of Guise. He was appointed as a pastor for the British refugee church in Germany and received support from the English government to oppose the Catholic Queen Mary. He was well-known for his political and religious influence and authored an unfinished work titled “The History of the Reformation in the Scottish Kingdom.”

Footnote o: Scotland is the northern region of Great Britain, with its capital being Edinburgh. Its agricultural products include barley and wheat, while its industrial outputs consist of textiles, electronic equipment, and petroleum products. Church History, 4/278-294, and Christian Sects and Doctrines, pages 185-193.

Footnote p: “Insights on Reform,” pages 47-61, and “Christian Sects and Doctrines,” pages 193-196. The term “Pope,” meaning “father,” was originally used to refer to all bishops but later became specific to the Bishop of the Alexandrian See. By the end of the sixth century, it was designated for the Bishop of the Catholic Church in Rome. For more information, see “Christian Faith Dictionary,” page 91, and “Encyclopedia of Major Religions,” page 602. Baptism is a religious rite that involves either immersing a person in water or sprinkling them with water, symbolizing their entry into Christianity and their acknowledgment of the three divine persons. For additional context, consult “Christian Faith Dictionary,” page 472, and “Encyclopedia of Major Religions,” page 75.

An Excerpt from “Wan-Nasraniyyah As-Suhruniyyah Nash’atuha Wa Ahammu Aqa’idiha” 1/116-129- By Jawharah Bint Muhammad Jam’aan Al-Qahtani.

NB: The information presented in this article is derived from the findings of the researcher. While she has made significant efforts to include numerous references and viewpoints, it is important to acknowledge that no text, apart from the Qur’an and Sunnah, is entirely free from errors, omissions, or lapses in memory on the part of any researcher. The information articulated in the article reflect the researcher’s personal views, and not all assertions can be independently verified by the individual who published this article (Abdullah Jallow). Therefore, those who find the information unsatisfactory are encouraged to conduct additional research or reach out to the author for further clarification. Nonetheless, the existing knowledge regarding Zionism in contemporary times is substantial, particularly in light of over seventy years of oppression faced by the Palestinians.