In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

The Ottomans originated from a Turkmen tribe residing in Kurdistan during the early seventh century after Hijrah, which aligns with the thirteenth century CE. They turned to herding following the Mongolian invasion under Genghis Khan in Iraq and parts of East Asia Minor. Sulaymaan, Uthmaan’s grandfather, migrated in 616 AH from Kurdistan with a tribe to Anatolia and settled in Ahlat (Khlat). After he died in 628 AH/1230 CE, his middle son Ertugrul took over. Ertugrul led his people further northwest in Anatolia, accompanied by around a hundred families and over four hundred horsemen. While escaping the Mongolian attack, Ertugrul heard a commotion and discovered a fierce battle between Muslims and Christians. The Byzantine army was winning, but Ertugrul didn’t hesitate, rather he bravely joined the fight, helping his fellow Muslims and ultimately contributing to their victory over the Christians. After the battle, he, as the leader of the Islamic Seljuk Army, and his group managed to acquire territory along the western borders of Anatolia, adjacent to the fortified frontier towns in Rome. This presented them with an opportunity to expand their land at the expense of the Romans. The Seljuks became strong allies and active participants in the Jihad against the Romans, forging a close relationship between their emerging state and the Seljuks of Rome due to their shared Islamic faith and a common enemy. This alliance endured throughout Ertugrul’s lifetime until he died in 699 AH / 1299 CE. Following his demise, his son Uthman, who assumed power, continued his father’s policy of territorial expansion in the Roman lands.

In 656 AH/1258 CE, Uthman, the son of Artughal, was born, and he is credited with the establishment of the Ottoman Empire. During this year, the Mongols, under the leadership of Hulagu, launched a military campaign against Baghdad – the capital of the Ottoman Caliphate – resulting in devastating consequences and immense tragedies. Imam Ibn Kathir [may Allah have mercy upon him] described how the Mongols mercilessly slaughtered men, women, children, Shaikhs, the elderly, and young men. People sought refuge in wells, dens of wild animals, and sewers, hiding for days on end. Some gathered in inns, only to have the Tartars break down doors or set them ablaze, chasing those who fled to rooftops and alleys, leaving bloodshed in their wake. Truly, we belong to Allah, and to Him, we shall return! It was only the Jewish and Christian inhabitants of the Muslim lands, along with those who sought shelter with them, who were spared from the Mongol onslaught.

The distress was immense and the circumstances were disastrous. The Ummah was weakened and depleted due to their sins and disobedience, allowing the Mongols to gain the upper hand. They dishonoured and shed blood, causing death and plundering the country. In these challenging times and prevailing weakness, Uthman, the founder of the Ottoman Empire, was born. At this juncture, a significant revelation emerges regarding the Ummah’s journey towards reclaiming authority, despite being in a state of utmost vulnerability. This resurgence toward strength, triumph, and empowerment is undoubtedly rooted in Allah’s perfect Wisdom, intention, and all-encompassing Will. The people of truth do not rush when it comes to Allah’s promises, for they will be supported and granted authority. Hence, they must consider the divinely ordained Sharee’ah and the events that Allah has decreed to occur in the universe. [An Excerpt from Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 42-45]

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Malik Shah had four sons: Barkiyak, Muhammad, Sanjar, and Mahmood. Mahmood, later known as Nasir Ad-Deen Mahmood, was a young child. Due to his mother, Turkan Khatun, holding a high status during Malik Shah’s reign, they pledged allegiance to Mahmood for him to assume authority. His reign lasted for approximately two years, from 485AH to 487AH, until both he and his mother passed away. Following Mahmood, Rukn Ad-Din Abu Al-Mu’dhaffar Barkiyak Bin Malik Shah took over the throne and ruled until 498 AH. Then came Rukn Ad-Din Malik Shah II, followed by Ghiyaath Ad-Din Abu Shujaa, Muhammad, who assumed power in the same year. Muhammad’s rule continued until the year 511 AH. He was the final ruler of the Great Seljuk State beyond the River, which held control over Khorasan, Iran, and Iraq. Their state eventually declined in 522 AH under the rule of Shahnat Khaawarizm.

With the decline of the Great Seljuk state across the river, the unity of the Seljuks shattered, their strength diminished, and they fragmented into factions, parties, and opposing camps vying for the throne. Consequently, they splintered into numerous states and small emirates within the vast empire. (a) Unlike the era of Sultan Tughrul Beg, Sultan Alp Arslan, Sultan Malik Shah, and their predecessors, these smaller entities were not under the rule of a single sultan. Each part of the Seljuk empire operated independently under separate leadership, with no mention of cooperation between them. As a result, the Khaawarizm state emerged across the river, standing resilient against the Mongol onslaught for a considerable period. Alongside it, the Seljuk emirates in northern Iraq and Shaam, known as the Tabakiyat, were established. Simultaneously, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rome emerged, bravely resisting the Crusades and successfully containing them in the northwestern corner of Asia Minor. However, this sultanate eventually succumbed to the successive Mongol invasions.

There are numerous factors associated with the decline of the Seljuk State, ultimately leading to the downfall of the Abbasid Caliphate. These factors include internal conflicts within the Seljuk family, involving brothers, uncles, sons, and grandchildren. Additionally, the interference of women in governmental affairs, along with certain governors, ministers, and chiefs, instigated conflicts between the Seljuk rulers and Abbasid caliphs. The weakness of the Abbasid Caliphate in the face of the Seljuk military force resulted in their recognition of the legitimacy of any powerful victor who assumed the throne of the Seljuk Sultanate. Furthermore, the Seljuk state’s inability to unify Shaam, Egypt, and Iraq under the Abbasid Caliphate banner, as well as internal divisions among the Seljuks leading to continuous military confrontations, contributed to the exhaustion of their power and the eventual collapse of their sultanate in Iraq. The Baatinee (heretical Shiites) also played a role in the downfall of the Seljuk state through their malicious plots, including continuous attempts to assassinate the Seljuk sultans, chiefs, and leaders under their authority. Lastly, the Crusader invasion from Europe posed a significant challenge to the Seljuk state, further exacerbating their struggles. These are just a few reasons and factors that contributed to the fall of the Seljuk Sultanate and the Abbasid Caliphate.

The Seljuks achieved remarkable feats, with their most significant contribution being the preservation of the Abbasid Caliphate. This caliphate was on the verge of decline around two centuries ago due to the influence of the Buwayhid Raafidah Shiites. The Seljuk state effectively thwarted the ambitions of the Ubaydi state in Egypt, which aimed to unify the Arab and Islamic East under the Baatinee Raafidah Shiite banner. The Seljuks’ efforts laid the groundwork for the eventual unification of the Islamic East by Salah Ad-Din Al-Ayyoobee, under the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate. Moreover, the Seljuks played a crucial role in promoting progress in the regions under their control through the dissemination of Islamic knowledge and efficient administration, ensuring security and stability. They also stood as a formidable barrier against the Crusaders and made significant efforts to repel the Mongol threat. Additionally, they elevated the status of the Sunni path and its scholars in these territories. This concise summary highlights the pivotal role of the Sunni Seljuks in defending Islam. It is unjust, false, and defamatory to label these courageous individuals as “Fragmented Chaotic Groups.” [An Excerpt from Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/39-41]

(a) Reflect on the statement: “With the decline of the Great Seljuk state across the river, the unity of the Seljuks shattered, their strength diminished, and they fragmented into factions, parties, and opposing camps vying for the throne. Consequently, they splintered into numerous states and small emirates within the vast empire”.

Imam Al-Bukhari said, “Chapter: If somebody does not seek the authority of ruling, then Allaah will surely help him”. AbdurRahmaan Bin Samura [may Allah be pleased with him] reported that the Prophet [peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him] said, “O Abdur-Rahmaan! Do not seek to be a ruler, for if you are given authority on your demand, you will be held responsible for it, but if you are given it without asking, you will be helped (by Allah) in it. If you ever take an oath to do something and later on find that something else is better, then you should expiate your oath and do what is better”. [End of Hadith]

The person who pursues authority and attains it will not find assistance. It is well known that holding authority comes with difficulties, so if one does not receive help from Allah, they will become ensnared by it and consequently lose both their worldly life and the afterlife. Hence, a sensible person refrains from seeking authority. However, if they are deserving and it is bestowed upon them without their request, then the truthful and trustworthy [Messenger] has assured them that Allah will assist them. [kitaab al Ahkaam Sahih Al-Bukhaari with Fat-hul Baari. Hadith Number 7146]

In The Name of Allaah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Nidhaam Al-Mulk

He was known as Nidhaam Al-Mulk, Abu Ali Al-Hasan Bin Ali Bin Ishaq At-Toosee, a devout follower of the religion, wise and knowledgeable, a respected leader, well-versed in the affairs of the state, cheerful and amiable, pious and humble, regularly attending gatherings of scholars and students of the Qur’anic sciences. He established a prestigious school in Baghdad, another in Naysabur, and yet another in Tous. His thirst for knowledge was insatiable, fostering connections among seekers of knowledge, transmitting hadeeth, and earning a renowned reputation. He found himself in various circumstances, eventually serving as a minister for Sultan Alp Arslan, and later as a minister to his son Malik Shah. He skillfully managed the lands under his authority, resolving grievances, showing kindness to his subjects, and establishing state endowments. The wise elders flocked to him, seeking to be close by his side. He advised Malik Shah to select leaders and governors with good morals, upright religious adherence, and bravery. The impact of this strategy became evident in the future, and one of the chosen leaders was Aq Sanqur, the grandfather of Noor Ad-Deen Mahmood, who governed Aleppo, Diyarbakir, and the Arabian Peninsula. Imam Ibn Kathir said, “He displayed exceptional conduct and a noble heart. Imaad Ad-Deen Zangi, his son, initiated the Jihad against the Crusaders, followed by Noor Ad-Deen Mahmood. This family laid the groundwork for the triumphs of Salah Ad-Din, Zahir Baybars, and Qalawun over the Crusaders, restoring unity and solidarity in the Islamic world. Similarly, Aq Sunqur al-Barasqi, a leader under Sultan Mahmood, the Seljuk, and the commander of Mosul, dedicated himself to the Jihad against the Crusade”. Ibn Al-Atheer said about him, “He was a freed Turkish slave, virtuous, loved the people of knowledge and the righteous, and he saw justice and acted upon it. He was one of the best rulers, used to strictly perform his prayers on time as well as the Tahajjud”.

When Malik Shah assumed control of the state, the military started to become disorganised and began to have more access to the nation’s wealth. They claimed, “The sultan only stops us from obtaining wealth because of NidhaamAl-Mulk”, leading to great harm for the people. So, he brought this issue to Sultan’s attention and explained the potential consequences, such as weakness, dishonour, vulnerability, the ruin of the country, and the loss of good governance. The Sultan told him, “Do what you believe is best in this matter!” He replied, “I can only act with your orders.” The Sultan responded, “I have entrusted all matters, big and small, to you, so you are like a father”. He then made an oath in the name of Allah about his statement, granted Nidhaam more power on top of what he already had, and presented him with a new outfit, along with titles, one of which was “The leader, the father”.

Nidhaam’s competence, bravery, and good behaviour became evident, satisfying the people’s hearts. On one occasion, a helpless woman sought his help, so he paused to converse with her; when one of his guards pushed her away, he openly criticised the guard’s actions, stating, “I only employ you to protect individuals like her, as the rulers and important figures do not require your services.” He then attended to the woman’s needs.

He loved the Islamic sciences, particularly the study of hadith. He used to say, “I know I am not worthy of narrating, but I love being linked to a chain of transmission that carries the hadith of Allah’s Messenger [peace and blessings of Allah be upon him]”. His gatherings were packed with jurists and scholars, as he spent the majority of his day with them. When he was told, “These people distract you from many beneficial things,” he replied, “These people are the beauty of the world and the Hereafter, and it would not have been too much if I made them sit on my head.”

Ibn Al-Athir said about him, “He was a scholar, devoted to the religion, generous, just, forbearing, pardoned offenders a lot, and preferred silence for prolonged periods. His gatherings were packed with students of the Qur’anic sciences, the jurists, and the Imaams of the Muslims, the good and righteous people. He was among the memorisers of the Qur’an and dedicated himself to studying the Mad’hab of Imaam Ash-Shaafi’ee. He would only sit in a state of ritual purity (Wudhu) and was never in that state except that he performed prayer. Whenever he heard the call to prayer (Adhaan), he would pause all his activities, and after it ended, he would resume with nothing else but prayer”. One of the indications of his humility was demonstrated one evening when he was dining with his brother Abul-Qaasim, while the Chief of Khurasan and a poor man with an amputated hand were also present. Observing the chief hesitating to eat with the man with the amputated hand, he instructed the chief to relocate, and then he moved close to the man with the amputated hand and ate with him. It was customary for him to offer his food to the poor and move it close to them.

In the year 485 AH, on Thursday, the tenth of the month of Ramadan, following the time of Iftaar, he prayed and then gathered around the meal table with a large group of people. He proceeded to discuss the significance of the location where they had arrived in the lands of Nahawand, recounting the historical events involving the Persians and the Muslims during the era of the Commander of the Faithful, Umar Bin Al-Khattab. He also paid tribute to the notable individuals who had been martyred there, concluding with the words, “Good news to those who follow in their footsteps.” After completing his Iftaar, he made his way back to his tent. Suddenly, a young Daylami [i.e. a person from the Daylan highlands (ran)] approached him under the guise of asking for something, only to strike him with a weapon instead. He was swiftly taken to the camp, where it was reported that he was the initial victim of the Ismaa’eeli Shiites’ violence. The tragic incident quickly spread throughout the army, causing an uproar. Upon hearing the news, Sultan Malik Shah arrived in a state of sorrow and tears, spending hours in the company of Nidhaam Al-Mulk until his passing. As for the murderer, he had stumbled across the tent, and then Nidhaam’s slaves pursued and killed him. Some of his servants said that his last words were “Do not kill the one who attempted to kill me because indeed I have forgiven him”. Then he uttered the Shahaadah and passed away”. Ibn Aqeel said about him, “He was a sea of sound intelligence, his life was filled with good, a generous and just person, one of the revivers of the signposts of the religion and his era was one of authority for the people of knowledge. He was murdered while on Hajj in Ramadan. [An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/33-38]

In The Name of Allaah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

After the demise of Alp Arslan, the Sultanate was inherited by his son, Malik Shah. However, his uncle Qaaward (or Qavurt) Bin Chaghri, who ruled over the Seljuks of Kerman, challenged his authority and sought to claim the Sultanate for himself. This led to a confrontation near Hamadan, resulting in Qaaward’s defeat and demise. Consequently, Malik Shah gained control over the Seljuk state of Kerman, while Sultan Shah Bin Alp Arslan [Malik Shah’s brother] was designated as the governor of Kerman in the year 465 AH. The Seljuk state experienced growth under the rule of Sultan Malik Shah. It expanded its territory from Afghanistan in the east to Asia Minor in the west and Shaam in the south. After the fall of Damascus in 468AH, Atsiz played a significant role in establishing communication with the Abbasid caliph. In 470AH, Malik Shah assigned his brother Taj Al-Dawlah to govern the areas in Shaam and continue the conquest. Taj Al-Dawlah went on to establish the Seljuk state of Shaam.

Additionally, Sulayman Bin Qatlamish Bin Israa’eel, a relative of Taj Al-Dawlah, was appointed as the ruler of Asia Minor, which was connected to the lands of Rome. This led to the establishment of the Seljuk state of Rome in 470AH. The rule of this state lasted for 224 years with fourteen descendants of Abul Fawaaris Qaltamish Ibn Israa’eel continuing the rulership. Sulaymaan Qaltamish, the first descendant, is credited as the state’s founder and successfully conquered Antioch in 477 AH. His son Dawud later made Konya his capital in 480 AH, transforming the once wealthy Byzantine city into an Islamic Seljuk city. The state eventually fell to the Mughals in 700 AH and later became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Seljuks of Rome played a key role in Turkifying Asia Minor and spreading Islam in the region. They facilitated the spread of Islamic civilization and weakened the defensive barrier protecting European Christianity from Islam in the East.

Despite the powerful rule of Sultan Malik Shah, Atsiz was unable to unite Shaam and Egypt after the Seljuks, and the Abaydiyyah state in Egypt, which was Shiite and Fatimid, posed a real threat. When Atsiz attempted to invade Egypt, he was defeated by an Arab force before facing the large army led by Minister Badr al-Jamaalee in Rajab 469 AH. This failure resulted in further fragmentation, political turmoil, and violent conflict, ultimately leading to Atsiz’s death in 571 AH. After the death of Sultan Malik Shah, the Seljuk state experienced a decline in strength and glory, which had been prominent during the reigns of Tughrul Beg, Alp Arslan, and Malik Shah, between 447 AH and 485 AH.

[Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/31-32]

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Alp Arslan assumed control of the nation following the demise of his uncle Tughrul Beg, despite facing some contention regarding the rightful successor. However, he successfully navigated through this dispute and emerged as a skilful and fearless leader, much like his uncle. He implemented a distinct strategy, focusing on consolidating his authority within the territories under the Seljuk influence before expanding his dominion to encompass new regions. His fervent desire for Jihad drove him to propagate the message of Islam in the neighbouring Christian nations, namely the Armenian and Roman lands. [I]

He spent seven years examining different parts of his extensive country before initiating any foreign expansion. Once he was confident in the restoration of security and the potential rule of the Seljuks in all regions and lands under their influence, he began strategizing to achieve his long-term objectives. These goals included conquering neighboring Christian countries, overthrowing the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, unifying the Islamic world under the Sunni Abbasid caliphate, and expanding the influence of the Seljuks. To accomplish this, he assembled a large army and directed it toward the territories of the Armenians and Georgia, successfully conquering and incorporating them into his kingdom. Additionally, he actively worked towards spreading Islam in these lands. He also launched a raid on northern Shaam and laid siege to the Mirdaasid state in Aleppo, which was established by Salih Bin Mirdas and followed the Shiite sect. Through his efforts, he compelled Mahmoud Bin Salih Bin Mirdas, the leader of the Mirdaasid state, to advocate for the Abbasid caliphate instead of the Fatimid caliphate. Furthermore, he dispatched his Turk commander, Atsiz Ibn Uwaq al-Khawaarizmee, on a campaign to southern Shaam, resulting in the capture of Ramle and Baytul Maqdis from the Fatimids. However, he was unable to seize Asqalaan, which served as the gateway to Egypt. These endeavors brought the Seljuks closer to the heart of the Abbasid Caliphate, with the Seljuk Sultan establishing his presence within Baytul Maqdis. In 462 AH, a messenger from the sultan approached the governor of Makkah, Muhammad Bin Abee Haashim, and instructed him to deliver the Friday sermon under the authority of the Caliph. The messenger also requested that the sermon previously delivered under the authority of the Ubaidi Shiite ruler of Egypt be abandoned. Additionally, the messenger urged the governor to cease the religious innovation of the Shiites, who had deviated from the prescribed wording of the A’dhaan. Instead of saying “Hayyaa Alas Salaah, Hayyaa Alal Falaah” (come to the prayer, come to success), they had introduced the phrase “Hayyaa Alaa khayril A’mal” (come to the best of deeds). As a reward, the sultan granted Muhammad Bin Abee Haashim a thousand dinars and expressed that if the governor of Madinah followed suit, he would receive twenty thousand dinars.

The Emperor of the Romans, Romanos Diogenes, was angered by the conquests of Alp Arslan, prompting him to take action to defend his empire. His troops engaged in numerous skirmishes and battles against the Seljuk forces, with the most significant being the clash in 463 AH. According to Imam Ibn Kathir, during this battle, the Roman king Romanos led a vast army that was well-equipped. He was supported by 35,000 commanders, 200,000 knights, 35,000 Franks, 15,000 raiders from Constantinople, 1,000 excavators and diggers, 1,000 clay workers, 400 wheeled carriages carrying shoes and nails, 1,000 wheeled carriages loaded with weapons, saddles, bows and arrows, catapults, and one particularly formidable catapult armed with thousands of missiles and manned by 200 soldiers. Their sole purpose was to eradicate Islam and its followers. He encountered Romanos and his army of Romans at a place called Zahwa. With his army of nearly 20,000, he was initially concerned about the large number of Romans; however, the jurist Abu Nasr Muhammad Bin Abdil Malik Al-Bukharee advised him to choose Friday as the day for the battle, when the Khateebs would be supplicating for the Mujahideen. Following this advice, the two parties faced each other on the chosen day. Before the battle began, Sultan Alp Arslan dismounted from his horse, prostrated to Allah with his face covered in soil and sought His help. Allah granted victory to the Muslims, resulting in the death of many Romans and the capture of their king, Romanos.

When Romanos was brought before Alp Arslan, he struck him three times and asked him what he would do if their roles were reversed. Romanos replied that he would commit every ugly deed. Alp Arslan then asked Romanos for his thoughts on his own fate. Romanos expressed his preference for being pardoned, paying a ransom, and being returned home rather than being killed and humiliated in Alp Arslan’s country. In response, he stated that his firm decision was to pardon Romanos and accept a ransom. He deducted a large sum from the ransom – five hundred thousand dinars. Ramanos paid his respects to Alp Arslan, who then provided him with 10000 dinars for preparations, released some commanders to accompany him, and dispatched an army to ensure his safe journey back to his country. The triumph of Alp Arslan’s army, consisting of only fifteen thousand soldiers, over Emperor Romanos’ massive army of over two hundred thousand troops, marked a significant moment in Islamic history. This victory led to the decline of Roman influence in key regions of Asia Minor, weakening the foundations of the Byzantine Empire and ultimately paving the way for its downfall at the hands of the Ottomans.

Alp Arslan, a righteous man, sought both religious and material means to achieve victory. He valued the advice of scholars and maintained a close relationship with them. During the battle of Manzikert, the erudite scholar Abu Nasr Muhammad Bin Abdil Malik Al-Hanafi gave him a remarkable piece of advice. He reminded Sultan Alp Arslan that they were fighting for a religion ordained by Allah, and that victory was promised by Allah for that cause. The scholar expressed hope that the conquest would be written in the Sultan’s name. He advised Alp Arslan to engage the enemy on a Friday, at the time when the khateebs were on the pulpits, as they would be supplicating for the Mujahideen. When the appointed hour arrived, the Sultan led his army in prayer, shedding tears that moved the people to tears as well. He prayed fervently, and his soldiers responded with Aameen. He then gave them the choice to leave, emphasizing that he would not force them to stay. He prepared for battle by equipping himself with a crossbow sling, and a sword, and dressing in white, declaring that if he were to fall, his white attire would serve as his shroud.

He was kind-hearted, compassionate towards the poor, and frequently supplicated to Allah to preserve the blessings bestowed upon him. On a particular occasion, he was moved to tears upon encountering impoverished individuals in Khurasan, beseeching Allah to grant him abundance from His Grace. Known for his generous donations, during Ramadan he would contribute 15000 dinars. His public treasury records contained numerous names of needy individuals across the regions under his governance, associated with various state departments and organizations. Throughout his lands, there were no instances of wrongdoing or property confiscation, as he opted for a modest land tax payment from cultivators each year, collected in two instalments, out of consideration for his subjects. Some of the clerks corresponded with him regarding his minister’s conduct concerning the governance system, highlighting his wealth. Consequently, he called for the minister and advised, “If the allegations against you are true, then take this as a warning to improve your behavior and rectify your affairs. However, if the accusations are false, then forgive the accuser for their error.” He was regularly informed about the history of the kings, their conduct, and the laws of the Shari’ah. As his reputation for good behaviour and honouring agreements spread among the kings, they willingly submitted to him in obedience and approval. Leaders traveled from distant lands, spanning from the river to the farthest regions of Shaam, to seek his counsel. He was murdered by one of the insurgents called Yusuf al-Khawarizmi, and that was on the tenth of Rabi al-Awwal in the year 465 AH, and he was buried in the city of Merv near the grave of his father. He was succeeded by his son Malik Shah. [An Excerpt from Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/26-31]

[I] https://www.abukhadeejah.com/the-life-of-the-muhammad-in-madinah-treaties-conquests-and-his-death/
https://www.abukhadeejah.com/treaties-with-the-non-muslims-do-they-necessitate-allegiance/
https://www.abukhadeejah.com/salafi-shaikh-fawzaan-on-jihaad-in-our-times-and-the-guidelines-of-jihaad-according-to-islam/