In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Abdul Hamid I

continued……..

Medhat Pasha was accused of murdering Sultan Abdul Aziz. Sultan Abdul Hamid established a committee to investigate the matter and subsequently brought the accused to trial, where they were found guilty. Medhat Pasha was sentenced to death, but Sultan Abdul Hamid intervened, reducing the sentence to imprisonment. He was then exiled to Hijaz, where the military prison was located.

The constitution established a separation of powers in appearance rather than in reality. Additionally, the changes made to the governance system under it were simply transformative; (but) no one considered reducing the sultan’s sovereignty. The constitution also established that the Sultan was not answerable to anyone for his actions. As a result, the constitution was linked to him personally. He had the sole power to appoint and remove ministers, negotiate treaties, declare war, and create peace agreements. He served as the supreme commander of the military and could issue all laws in various areas without needing parliament’s approval. Moreover, the extensive powers given to the sultan by the constitution restricted the Prime Minister’s authority, relegating him to a minor role in governance. The constitution stated that members of parliament have the freedom to express their opinions and vote, and they could only be prosecuted if they violated the council’s laws. It designated Ottoman Turkish as the official language of the state for discussions in all sessions. It also specified that voting could be in private or public depending on the circumstances, and that the House of Representatives must approve the budget without interference from the sultan.

Regarding individual rights, the constitution declared that Ottomanism is the official policy of the state within the framework of the principle of equality established by regulations. The constitution granted Ottoman status to all citizens of the state, regardless of their religion, and emphasised personal freedom. It stated that all Ottomans are equal before the law and entitled to the same rights while being subject to the same duties. Additionally, the constitution affirmed the independence of the judiciary, allowing non-Muslims to refer to their own religious courts for matters related to their religious affairs.

Sultan Abdul Hamid ordered the implementation of the constitution and the holding of general elections, which were the first of their kind in Ottoman history. These elections resulted in the representation of Muslims with 71 seats, Christians with 44 seats, and Jews with 4 seats. The first Ottoman Parliament convened on March 29, 1877 (1294 AH), with the Senate consisting of 26 appointed members, including 21 Muslims, while the House of Representatives had 120 members. Some Arab representatives played a significant role, but the duration of the Assembly was short. Before the Assembly could hold its second session, on February 13, 1878 (1296 AH), the representatives requested that three ministers appear before the Assembly to defend themselves against the accusations made against them. However, Sultan Abdul Hamid decided to dissolve the Assembly and ordered the representatives to return to their countries, exiling and removing the prominent ones. Thus, the total duration of the Assembly during its first and second sessions was twelve months and twenty-five days. This Assembly was not called to meet again for thirty years, during which the Assembly hall was never opened even once.

Sultan Abdul Hamid was forced to announce the constitution due to pressure from the Masons led by Medhat Pasha. Therefore, when he had the chance, he suspended the council. He was against democracy and constitutional rule, which in Ottoman terms is known as (conditionality), meaning the ruler’s powers are limited. He viewed this as a Western idea and opposed those who advocated for it, particularly Medhat Pasha. He criticised his minister by saying: “He only saw the benefits of constitutional rule in Europe, but he did not study the reasons for this conditionality or its other effects. Medical prescriptions do not work for every patient or every constitution. I believe that the principles of conditionality are not suitable for every nation or every cultural environment. I once thought it was beneficial, but now I am convinced of its harm”.

The sultan had his reasons for this, including the poor handling by the proponents of the constitution in their initial response to the sultan’s ideas. For instance: The government requested the sultan, at the time of announcing the constitution, to sign some decisions, including the appointment of Christian governors in provinces where most of the population is Muslim, and a decision to accept Christian students into the Ottoman military academy, which is the backbone of the Ottoman army. The sultan refused to sign, and all that Medhat Pasha – the minister – could say to the sultan was: “Our aim in announcing the constitution is to end the tyranny of the palace, and Your Majesty must understand your duties”.

One of the reasons Sultan Abdul Hamid rejected the constitutional thought is: The Ottoman Empire is a state that unites various peoples, and constitutionalism in such a state means the death of the original element in the country. Is there even one Indian representative in the English Parliament? Is there even one Algerian representative in the French Parliament?

He did not change his stance on constitutional rule in his state; even after he was deposed, people began to practice constitutional governance. He said: “What happened when I announced the conditionality? Did debts decrease? Did roads, ports, and schools increase? Are the laws now more rational and logical? ! Is personal security now established? Are the people more prosperous? Have deaths decreased and births increased? Is global public opinion now more in our favor than before? A beneficial medicine can become a deadly poison if it is in the hands of those who are not doctors or do not know how to use it properly. I am truly sorry, as events have shown the truth of my words”. He indicates that his stance on constitutional rule is not fixed; if the circumstances in which he governs change, so will his perspective on constitutional governance. In this he states: “It should not be assumed that my thoughts and beliefs are always against the rule based on the principles of conditionality”.

An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/446-449

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Abdul Hamid I

Continued..

He was appointed to the caliphate following his brother Murad, on Thursday, 11 Sha’ban 1293 AH (31 August 1876), at which time he was thirty-four years old. The ministers, dignitaries, and senior officials from both civilian and military sectors were present at the ceremony in the Tuwaiq Palace. Cannons were fired throughout the empire in celebration of this occasion, and decorations were displayed across all areas of Istanbul for three days. The Grand Vizier sent telegrams to countries around the world to inform them of this event. He appointed Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier, and then on December 23, 1293 AH (1876), he announced a constitution that guarantees civil liberties. It established the principle of parliamentary governance. According to this constitution, the parliament was composed of two chambers: the House of Representatives, or Envoys, and the Senate or Council of Elders.

He faced the hardhandedness of the ministers at the onset of his reign, alongside the intensification of their Westernisation policies led by the Young Ottomans Society, which included the educated elite influenced by the West. This group was manipulated by Masonic hands to serve their objectives. The extent of the ministers’ despotism was such that Mehmed Pasha, in his capacity as the head of the Young Ottomans, wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid at the beginning of his rule (1877): “Our intention in declaring the constitution was solely to eliminate despotism, to clarify Your Majesty’s rights and obligations, to define the roles of ministers, and to ensure the freedom and rights of all individuals, so that the country may advance to higher levels of progress. I will obey your command as long as it does not contradict the interests of the nation.” He stated: “I found that Medhat Pasha appointed himself as a ruler and guardian, and in his dealings, he was far from constitutionalism and closer to despotism”

Medhat Pasha and his Masonic associates were known to indulge in alcohol. Sultan Abdul Hamid noted in his memoirs: “It is well-known that the intellectuals and poets of that era gathered on the evening of the issuance of the Basic Law decree at Medhat Pasha’s palace, not to discuss state matters, but rather to engage in expressions of gratitude and revelry, while consuming wine. Medhat Pasha had been a heavy drinker since his youth, a fact well recognised. The intoxication from the wine coincided with the exhilaration brought about by the announcement of the Basic Law. When Medhat Pasha rose from the dining table, he leaned on the arms of others to avoid falling. As he washed his hands, he addressed his brother-in-law, Tosun Pasha, while his tongue was swaying in his mouth due to the effects of the alcohol: ‘O Pasha! Who can now, after all that I have achieved, remove me from my position? Who? Tell me, how many years will I remain in this supreme position?’ Tosun Pasha responded by saying: ‘If you continue in this manner, it will not be more than a week’. Medhat Pasha, during his private drinking gatherings, would divulge the most sensitive state secrets, and these secrets would spread the following day among the people of Istanbul. One night, Medhat Pasha spoke of his intention to declare a republic in the Ottoman Empire, stating that he would become the President of the new Ottoman Republic, and then its Emperor. This was reminiscent of what had occurred with Napoleon III in France”. [Footnote a]

An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/444-446

Footnote a: The reference to this individual’s alcohol consumption and inebriation is not something we can confirm; rather, the burden of proof lies with the author who made this claim. Given that this is a historical text, readers are encouraged to conduct further research on the subject. Our role is simply to relay what is presented in the historical narrative provided by the author, and we have not encountered any evidence to support or refute the assertions made by the author. Therefore, we withhold judgment regarding him in this context until definitive evidence is presented to us. Similarly, we have no proof to substantiate his involvement in masonic activities; therefore, it is the responsibility of the reader to conduct further investigation.

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Sultan Abdul Hamid I

Continued..

Firstly, his visit to Europe with his uncle Sultan Abdul Aziz:

Sultan Abdul Aziz traveled to Europe accompanied by a high-ranking Ottoman delegation, which included Prince Abdul Hamid. He presented himself to the Europeans in simple attire, reflecting his virtuous character. He had prepared for this journey through extensive readings, demonstrating a keen insight and judgment regarding the things he observed in the West. The Ottoman delegation met with prominent political figures of that era in Europe, such as Napoleon III in France, Queen Victoria in England, Leopold II in Belgium, Wilhelm I in Germany, and Franz Joseph in Austria. This journey followed his earlier visit with Sultan Abdul Aziz to Egypt, where he became aware of the deceptive allure of European glamour and the adoption of European formalities, which led Egypt into debt due to the extravagant spending of Khedive Ismail Pasha, who sought to transform Egypt into a part of Europe.

His trip to Europe lasted from June 21 to August 7, 1867. The Ottoman delegation visited France, England, Belgium, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During this European trip, Abdul Hamid’s perspective broadened significantly, influencing his entire reign thereafter. The key aspects that impacted him included:

1: European life with its peculiar lifestyles, diverse ethics, and formalities.

2: Industrial and military advancements, particularly in the French and German ground forces, as well as the British naval forces.

3: The intricacies of global politics.

The influence of European powers on the policies of the Ottoman Empire, particularly the impact of Napoleon III on his uncle, Sultan Abdul Aziz, and the pressure exerted by Napoleon for him to support Minister Ali Pasha, despite Sultan Abdulaziz’s insistence that he was not under the influence of any foreign power.

During this journey, he came to the realisation that France is a nation of leisure, England is characterised by wealth, agriculture, and industry, while Germany represents order, military strength, and administration. His admiration for Germany was profound, leading him to entrust the training of the Ottoman army to them once he ascended to the throne. This journey significantly influenced Abdul Hamid, prompting him to focus on incorporating modern inventions into his state across various sectors, including education, industry, communication, and military affairs. Notable examples of this include his purchase of submarines, a new military technology at the time, his personal investment in bringing the telegraph to his country, the establishment of modern schools that included contemporary sciences, the introduction of the first automobile and bicycle, and the adoption of the metric system. However, he firmly opposed the spread of Western thought within his nation.

His journey to Europe also influenced his policy of independence towards Europe; he was not known to be swayed by any European ruler, regardless of their friendship or the closeness between their country and the Ottoman Empire. During this trip, he was particularly struck by the discussions that Grand Vizier Fuad Pasha was having with various European leaders.

During this journey, Fuad Pasha was asked, “What is the price for the island of Crete?” He replied, “It is the same price at which we acquired it”. This indicated that the Ottomans fought for 27 years to retain control over Crete. Fuad Pasha was also asked, “Which is the strongest nation in the world today?” He responded, “The strongest nation at present is the Ottoman Empire, as you are undermining it from the outside while we are doing so from within. Neither of us has succeeded in its destruction”. He learned from this the lesson of the ability to silence the forces that sought to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and he also acquired the skill of political dialogue, in which he later excelled. At the time of this journey, he was 25 years old.

An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/442-444

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

What prompted us to start this series was an incredible and repugnant nonsense uttered by a French ideologue who says that Africa should show gratitude to France! Gratitude for what exactly? For 147 years of plundering, violence, oppression, exploitation, cruelty, theft, and arrogance? This is why none deserves Imam As-Sadi’s, may Allah have mercy on him, rebuke against the oppressors more than the French Colonialists. He said: “What kind of progress is this? A progress that turns its people into vicious wild animals, marked by oppression, annihilation, and the colonisation of weaker nations while stripping them of their rights?” He also noted that their so-called development is disconnected from submission to Allah and the religion He ordained, leading to harm and resulting in savagery and barbarism, with outcomes that bring about destruction, ruin, and unparalleled evils. [1]

The Mali Empire Prior to The Arrival of The French Colonialists

At its zenith, the Mali Empire encompassed the territory spanning from the Sahara Desert to the coastal forests, incorporating present-day Senegal, southern Mauritania, Mali, northern Burkina Faso, western Niger, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and northern Ghana. This Kingdom has been extensively examined in historical research, leading to a variety of discussions and interpretations among Arab historians who contributed their insights and perspectives. Notably, the geographical attributes of the Kingdom of Mali, including its location and demographic characteristics, have attracted considerable interest from Arab Muslim travelers and geographers in their accounts. The kingdom was acknowledged by certain Arab communities, especially in Egypt, as the territory of Takrur. However, it is important to note that this term specifically pertains to a distinct area within the Sultanate of Mali, as indicated by the title of the rulers of Mali, who were referred to as the kings of Takrur.

The various tribes within the population of Mali exhibited considerable diversity, shaped by the languages and dialects of adjacent groups. The Fulani refer to these tribes as “Mali,” while the Berber language identifies them as “Milet,” and in Arabic, they are known as “Millal.” In the Hausa language, they are called “N’kudi.” As for the precise etymology of the term “Mandé”, it is ambiguous; some theories propose that it originates from “Mandi,” which translates to “the city” or “the capital,” suggesting that these individuals are the inhabitants of urban areas. In the Mandé language, “Mali” is interpreted as “where the king resides.”

Arab geographers and travelers, along with their successors, did not offer a detailed description of the boundaries of the Mali Kingdom. Nevertheless, its borders were situated within the regions south of the Sahara, which were commonly referred to by these geographers and travelers as the lands of Sudan. This area is vast and varied, extending northward to the territories of the Berbers, southward to the plains, eastward to Abyssinia, and bordered by the ocean to the west. The region is categorized into three segments: Eastern Sudan, Central Sudan, and Western Sudan. The Mali Kingdom is located in Western Sudan, spanning approximately three hundred miles along one of the Niger River’s branches, adjacent to the former kingdom to the north.

The kingdom underwent considerable territorial growth over the centuries. Its boundaries stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Borno area, currently part of Nigeria, in the east, and from the northernmost reaches of Morocco in the south to the ocean in the southern regions. At the zenith of its influence, the kingdom included areas that are now recognized as Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, and the modern Republic of Mali. The kingdom was divided into five distinct regions, each governed by the Mansa or Sultan of Mali, whose central authority was located in Benbi or Bemba. To the west of Mali lay the Sosso region, specifically in Kanyaga. The Ghana region was situated to the west of Sosso, reaching the shores of the Atlantic Ocean and containing gold mines that attracted traders from Silhamasa and northern Morocco. The Kokiya region was positioned to the east of Mali, with its center in Kokiya, approximately a month and a half’s journey from Ghana, west of present-day Nigeria. Adjacent to Kokiya was the Takrur region, which had its base established in Takrur.

The introduction of Islam to the Kingdom of Mali occurred prior to the arrival of the Almoravids in West Africa, largely due to the longstanding trade relations between the northern and western regions of the continent. Given that West Africa is largely a cohesive region, it is essential to recognise that trade, despite facing various obstacles, played a significant role in the exchange of new and productive discourses. So, who was the first among the kings of Mali to embrace Islam? Some historians assert that once the land of Mali experienced a severe drought in a particular year, threatening the crops and livestock. In response, the king sought the counsel of a respected Muslim elder known for his piety. The elder prayed with the king for rain, which subsequently fell, but only after the scholar had first urged the king to convert to Islam. The king acepted Islam, dismantled the idols, which subsequently led to the conversion of his heirs and close companions, while the majority of his subjects continued to practice polytheism, resulting in a bifurcation of governance between Muslims and non-Muslims from that time forward. Furthermore, it has been reported that the region of Mali once endured successive years of drought, prompting the populace to make cattle sacrifices in their desperate appeals for rain, nearly exhausting their livestock without any alleviation of their plight. During this period, a Muslim visitor, who was engaged in reciting the Quran and imparting teachings of the Sunnah, was present at the royal court. The king conveyed his worries to this guest, who counseled him that by believing in Allah, recognizing His oneness, accepting Muhammad, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, as His messenger, and adhering to the principles of Islam, he might find hope for relief. Islam was already known to the king when he chose to adopt it. There existed Muslims who engaged in the recitation of the Quran, imparted the teachings of the Prophet, and diligently disseminated the Islamic message. In many instances, the growth of Islam was characterised not by coercion but by persuasion, a hallmark of its appeal as a faith that resonates with sound human nature. Additionally, the Mandinka, the architects of the Mali Empire, emerged as some of the most fervent advocates of Islam in West Africa.

The rulers of Mali by the close of the eleventh century had accepted Islam, and the expansion of the Mali Empire throughout different areas of West Africa was intricately linked to the dissemination of Islam and the formation of its institutions, such as mosques and educational establishments. Furthermore, there was a deliberate initiative to attract scholars and religious figures to Mali in order to further the Islamic mission and enhance educational opportunities. Muslim scholars held a significant position in Mali, as the Kingdom of Mali not only embraced Islam and endeavored to implement its teachings and sciences but also actively promoted it among the inhabitants of West Africa. The role it played in the dissemination of Islam is considered one of the most crucial phases in the spread of Islam across the continent, as it was closely linked to the call for the faith.

The primary guideline for succession to the throne in Mali involved the selection of the eldest son of the deceased sultan. Nevertheless, adherence to a strictly linear order of descent was not obligatory. It was permissible for brothers to succeed each other, provided that the age hierarchy was maintained, even if they were not the eldest. Additionally, it was not uncommon for the sons of sisters or daughters to inherit the throne, a practice that was prevalent in various African kingdoms throughout West Africa and in the Nile Valley among the Nubian populations. This principle was observable in the Ghana Empire and was similarly practiced in the smaller Sudanese kingdoms, irrespective of whether they were governed by indigenous Sudanese or Berber leaders. Al-Qalqashandi remarked on this tradition, noting, “According to the custom of the non-Arabs regarding the inheritance by daughters and granddaughters.” Ibn Battuta further elaborated on this custom, recounting his observations in the city of Takda, where the sons of the sultan’s sister held power, as well as in the city of Walata. At times, the reins of power may slip from their grasp, leading to the throne being usurped by an individual outside the ruling families, as occurred with Al-Sundaki following the death of Musa II.

The rulers of the Mali Empire wielded absolute power over the empire’s governance. Their duties encompassed ensuring the security and justice of their subjects, as well as convening regular consultations in the palace courtyard to evaluate the welfare of the populace and to enforce their decrees. The vice-king, referred to as “Fanja,” played a crucial role in the administration, supported by ministers, senior officials, and advisors. It was common for the vice-king to be the king’s son. Ministers, known as “Sundaki,” often included individuals who had previously been enslaved by the sultans but had since gained their freedom. In terms of administrative organization, the term “dojo” denoted a village, which constituted the fundamental unit of governance. Cities, formed from multiple villages, were called “Diyamana,” signifying provinces or kingdoms. This administrative framework appears to have been shaped by the tribal traditions of the Mandinka, the original founders of the Islamic Kingdom of Mali. The designation “Mansa” was also employed and associated with the provincial governors and village leaders. Typically, the individual responsible for overseeing provincial matters arrives in the village shortly after the chief and may exercise authority on his behalf.

The Kingdom of Mali established various institutions to manage its governance, with the judicial system holding a position of utmost significance, recognized as both a noble and demanding responsibility under the Sultan’s oversight. The empire maintained a powerful military, with the army constituting the second most crucial labor force in the region. This emphasis on military prowess can be traced back to the time of Sundiata, who achieved a significant victory over rival tribes during the Battle of Kabriya.

The military force of the Mali Empire reached its zenith during the rule of Mansa Musa, establishing itself as the most powerful military entity in West Sudan. Several Malian monarchs granted territories to military nobles, generously endowing them with nearly fifty thousand mithqals of gold each year, alongside provisions of horses and textiles for their uniforms and urban development. The primary responsibilities of the army included protecting the nation from external aggressions and ensuring internal stability. Military leaders enjoyed a high status within the political hierarchy, and the army was organized into two distinct divisions, each overseen by a commander appointed by the king. The Northern Army, commanded by Farhan Sur, was stationed in the city of Diara in the Kanbaja region. Conversely, the Southern Army was headquartered in the Sangaran region, led by Diyon Sandaki. The armament of the Malian military comprised spears, swords, staffs, crossbows, lances, and pins crafted from the Inos tree, complemented by shields made from the hide of the Lamta animal, which possessed the durability to endure spear thrusts, sword blows, and crossbow projectiles.

The economic life and the foundations of its economy included agriculture, industry, and trade. Agricultural methods and irrigation techniques: Agriculture served as a fundamental pillar of the Kingdom’s economy; however, it did not receive significant attention due to the populace’s inclination towards trade. Consequently, there was a lack of innovation in agricultural practices and irrigation methods, coupled with a deficiency in agricultural tools. As a result, agriculture did not experience widespread development, particularly in trade-centric regions, and there was no substantial class of farmers, except for a few individuals tied to the land. Agriculture flourished more in cities located along riverbanks than in inland areas, primarily due to the former’s fertile lands. For instance, the Gambia River benefited from heavy rainfall throughout its course, resulting in the deposition of rich alluvial soil along its banks. The tools traditionally employed by farmers were characterised by their simplicity, including a small-handled hoe, a spade, and a knife, alongside the practice of fallow farming.

Regarding irrigation methods, initially, irrigation was achieved through artificial means, particularly evident in desert oases and along the banks of the Niger and Senegal rivers. In addition to relying on rainfall alongside watercourses during the rainy season, they were keen on cultivating areas located along riverbanks. However, due to the influx of resources into the kingdom, the land was utilized more effectively, leading to the expansion of agriculture in mountainous and interior regions. This development prompted them to enhance irrigation techniques, resulting in the emergence of various agricultural patterns based on regional characteristics. For instance, rain-fed agriculture was prevalent in lowland areas, while permanent farming using hoes and spades was practiced in forested regions. As they expanded their agricultural activities into the interior areas, they resorted to drilling wells for irrigation. Some of these wells are of the artesian type, which involved digging until reaching solid rock, which was then broken with picks and axes to release water.

The most significant agricultural products in the region were vegetables, with the kingdom being renowned for cultivating a variety of them, including okra, onions, garlic, eggplants, and cabbage. Additionally, wild molokhia was present, along with a plant known as qafi, which resembles taro and is used to make porridge. The stems of this plant were also utilised to create dishes and utensils for eating, and it played a role in their daily meals. In terms of fruits, their availability was limited, with fig trees being among the most prominent cultivated fruits, alongside trees that bear fruits resembling cucumbers. The influence of Arab Islamic presence was notably evident in the agricultural sector, particularly concerning crops. This was illustrated by the introduction of new agricultural products to the kingdom from Arab Islamic countries. Historical accounts suggest that cotton seeds were brought to West Sudan from North Africa, and it is attributed to the Muslim king Sandiana (Mari Hatta) the introduction of cotton cultivation in the kingdom, as he promoted agricultural policies within the region. In addition to agricultural wealth, the kingdom also possessed a significant livestock resource, comprising both domesticated and wild animals. The domesticated animals, which were raised in households, included sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. The inhabitants utilised their meat for sustenance and crafted clothing from their wool and hair. However, their sheep and goats often lacked proper grazing areas, as they primarily foraged in refuse sites. Notably, a single goat could give birth to seven or eight offspring at a time.

Wild animals include deer, lions, tigers, giraffes, zebras, and buffalo. Evidence of the presence of giraffes in the kingdom was demonstrated by their being sent as a gift from Sultan Mansa Zata to Sultan Abu Salim al-Barini. Additionally, giraffes were abundant in the land of Takrur, where they were frequently captured and slaughtered like cattle. The kingdom was known for its horses, particularly the Akadian breed, and its livestock included cattle, sheep, and camels. Among these animals, there were some of poor physique and small stature. The kingdom lacked purebred horses, which they imported from North Africa. These horses were primarily used by the king’s entourage during their movements within the city, as well as by merchants on their various journeys. The prices of these horses were quite high, making them accessible only to the wealthy class. Additionally, camels were considered one of the most significant livestock due to their remarkable ability to endure the hardships of travel and withstand salty water. They played a crucial role in the dissemination of education and Islamic beliefs to the regions of Sudan. Furthermore, buffaloes were prevalent in the deserts, where they were hunted similarly to wild game. The hunters would capture the young from their mothers and raise them at home. When they intended to hunt buffaloes, they would take one of them to the hunting area, allowing the others to see and become familiar with it.

The forests were home to a vast number of elephants, whose tusks were utilised in the ivory trade. These elephants were characterised by their wild nature, being untamed. The method of capturing them involved men laying out a type of paper, along with bait and branches, near a water source. They would then hide, and once the elephants approached to drink, they would become intoxicated and fall. Subsequently, the hunters would emerge with large spears to kill the elephants, with the primary objective being to obtain their tusks. They were were hunted in the neighboring lands of the non-Muslims.

In the industrial sector, the Kingdom of Mali was endowed with significant mineral wealth, which served as a cornerstone for its economy, primarily comprising gold, salt, and copper. Gold held the foremost position among these raw materials, followed by salt and copper. Salt, in particular, was valued just after gold and was concentrated in several regions, with Taghaza being the most renowned for its production or south of Morocco, near the Atlantic Ocean, thus designating Taghaza as a populated area rich in salt mines resembling marble quarries. The salt extracted from this region was transported both within and beyond West Sudan and was regarded as one of the finest types of salt. In addition to the well-known saltworks of Taghaza, there were also the saltworks of Krenouga. The extraction of salt involved digging tunnels in the ground to a depth of approximately two cubits or less, where it was cut similarly to stone. The salt came in various colours, including white, gray, and red. Copper ranked in importance just after gold and salt, due to its critical demand in military industries, adornments, and the manufacturing of utensils. This metal was mined from Takkanda through a process of excavation. Consequently, copper played a significant role alongside the aforementioned minerals, and the region was also known for other mineral resources. Iron is another significant metal, with its mines widely distributed in western Sudan. In addition to this, there were other raw materials such as lead, kohl, and tin; however, these materials were not as prevalent. Similarly, alum and kohl were considered primary materials, with alum being one of the essential components in dye production. The Islamic Kingdom of Mali was known for its industrial system. In the villages, there were numerous artisans and craftsmen, particularly in the city of Timbuktu, which housed many workshops. Among the most important crafts that flourished in the Kingdom of Mali were: Carpentry, which thrived significantly due to the availability of abatis wood, as well as pottery and ceramics. This craft was one of the most common in the kingdom, with residents focusing on pottery making, creating household items such as containers for milk. Additionally, leatherworking was practiced by a group known as the cobblers. Blacksmithing also received considerable attention in the kingdom, along with mining, which was one of the most vital crafts due to the importance of metals in the country’s economy.

The commercial centers in Mali experienced significant growth, which characterised the kingdom and led to the emergence of numerous trading cities located on both sides of the Sahara Desert. This was particularly evident in areas traversed by caravans crossing the desert, which served as stable hubs for merchants responsible for transporting and distributing various goods. Among the most notable centers are Ghadames, a city in the Maghreb region adjacent to Sudan, and Tawat, situated in the southwestern part of the Algerian desert, which is part of the larger African Sahara. Another important center was Argelan, located in the central Moroccan desert, described as a city inhabited by the Miassir tribes and wealthy traders who would travel to the lands of Ghana and Wankara. On the southern side of the Sahara, there was Walata, recognised as the last city of the ancient region of Shinqit (modern-day Mauritania), founded in the first century of the Hijra. Its inhabitants were of Arab descent. This city, as well as Timbuktu, which was considered one of the most significant commercial centers in the Islamic Kingdom of Mali. The name Timbuktu is believed to originate from an elderly woman, as caravans of the Tuareg would stop to drink from a well in the desert. A woman named (Boktu) resided by this well, and her name has remained unchanged over time. This location is situated at the southern edges of the Sahara Desert in northern Mali, near the bend of the Niger River. Java is recognized as a significant commercial center due to its position on the left bank of the Niger River, connected to the Tamas Valley that descends from the heart of the desert. Mademke is also considered an important trading hub, attracting merchants from both the East and the West. This influx is attributed to the stability and security that characterised the area, which experienced an improvement in its economic conditions, evolved into one of the most vital commercial markets until the late 10th century AH, corresponding to the 16th century. [2]

To be continued InShaAllah.

[1] Excerpt from Al-Adillah al-Qawaatiq Wal-Baraaheen Fee Ib’taal Usool al-Mul’hideen 44]

[2] Excerpt from the Arabic source: “The Kingdom of Mali During The Reign of Mansa Musa” pages 1-30

In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.

Allah said:

وَلَا تَقْفُ مَا لَيْسَ لَكَ بِهِۦ عِلْمٌ إِنَّ ٱلسَّمْعَ وَٱلْبَصَرَ وَٱلْفُؤَادَ كُلُّ أُو۟لَٰٓئِكَ كَانَ عَنْهُ مَسْـُٔولًا

And follow not (O man i.e., say not, or do not or witness not, etc.) that of which you have no knowledge (e.g. one’s saying: “I have seen,” while in fact he has not seen, or “I have heard,” while he has not heard). Verily! The hearing, and the sight, and the heart, of each of those you will be questioned (by Allah). [Al-Isra 36]

Prior to delving into the biography of Sultan Abdul Hamid I, the author briefly touched upon the life of Sultan Murad V. However, we have chosen to omit his biography from this series due to certain negative claims associated with him that we cannot verify. Given that this matter pertains to the honour of a Muslim, we are obliged to withhold any information regarding his life until we can confirm the veracity of these allegations. It is undeniable that the decline of the Ottoman Empire brought about numerous unfavorable transformations, yet attributing these specific changes to any individual necessitates concrete evidence. Now, let us proceed with the biography of Sultan Abdul Hamid I.

Sultan Abdul Hamid I [1293 – 1326 AH / 1876 – 1909]

He was the thirty-fourth sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ascended to the throne at the age of thirty-four, having been born on the 16th of Sha’ban in the year 1258 AH (1842). His mother passed away when he was just ten years old. Subsequently, his father’s second wife, who was unable to bear children, took on the responsibility of raising him. She strove to fulfill the role of a mother, showing him with affection and even bequeathing her inheritance to him. He was profoundly influenced by her nurturing, admiring her dignity, piety, and calm demeanor. This upbringing left a lasting impact on his character throughout his life.

He received a structured education at the royal palace, guided by a select group of the most renowned scholars of his time (within the empire), both in knowledge and character. He studied the Arabic and Persian languages, delved into history, developed a passion for literature, and explored Tasawwuf. (I) He also composed some poetry in Ottoman Turkish. He trained in weaponry, mastering the use of the sword and achieving accuracy with a pistol. He maintained his physical fitness and showed a keen interest in global politics, closely following news related to his country with exceptional attention to detail and rare precision.

An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/441

[I] The Sufism practiced during the some periods of the Ottoman era is extensively recorded. While the author did not elaborate on the extent to which this Sultan engaged with Sufiyyah, we can infer that if his understanding aligned with contemporary Sufiyyah, there would be significant concerns regarding this practice. However, if his approach mirrored that of the early Sufis, we can glean insights into his practices from the information shared in the link by Shaikh Abu Iyaad, may Allah protect him. http://www.ibntaymiyyah.com/articles/dgfil-the-origin-of-the-sufis-is-from-basrah-iraq.cfm

To be continued…InShaAllah