[17] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire
In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.
The Battle of Lepanto
The Battle of Lepanto marked a significant moment as Christian nations trembled in the face of the formidable Islamic threat posed by the advancing Ottoman forces, both on land and at sea. In response, Pope Pius V (1566-1572) sought to unite the disparate European countries, rallying their military might under the papal banner. He expressed concern over the growing power of the Turkish authority, attributing it to the failures of the Christian states. In early 979 AH (May 1571), Pope Pius V, along with King Philip II of Spain and the Republic of Venice, forged an alliance to launch a naval assault against the Ottomans. This coalition also included several Italian cities, inspired by Pius V’s call for unity, leading to the participation of Tuscany, Genoa, Savoy, and other Italian entities in the Holy League.
The Pope reached out to the King of France seeking assistance, but Charles IX declined, citing his commitments to treaties with the Ottomans. The Pope then urged him to be released from these agreements. Shortly after, the Emperor broke his own treaties with the Ottomans and turned to Ivan, the King of the Russians, to rally for war. He encountered delays from the King of Poland, and Don John of Austria was appointed as the campaign leader. One of the clauses in the Christian treaty stated that Pope Pius V, King Philip of Spain, and the Republic of Venice declared both offensive and defensive war against the Turks to reclaim all territories taken from Christians, including Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli.
Sardar Don John sailed to the Adriatic Sea, reaching the narrow part of the Gulf of Corinth near Patras, not far from Lepanto, which was named after the battle. Observers noted that the leaders of the Islamic fleet could benefit from fortifying the gulf and avoiding engagement with the Crusader fleet. However, the commander Ali Pasha insisted on going into battle, relying on his superior number of ships. He organised his forces in a single line from north to south, with the left flank anchored at the port of Lepanto and the main body positioned in open water. Ali Pasha divided his fleet into two wings and a center, taking command himself in the center, there was Sirocco leading the right wing, while the left wing was commanded by Qilij Ali. In response, Don John organized his forces, positioning his troops to counter the Islamic formation. He placed Doria in charge of his right wing opposite Qilij Ali and assigned Barbarigo to lead his left wing against Sirocco. Don John himself took command of the center and left a reserve fleet under the leadership of Santa Cruz.
The battle intensified on the 17th of Jumada al-Awwal in the year 979 AH, corresponding to October 17, 1571, when the Islamic fleet surrounded the Christian fleet. The Ottomans penetrated deep into the enemy’s ships, leading to a fierce confrontation where both sides displayed remarkable bravery and valor. However, fate led to a defeat for the Muslims, who lost around thirty thousand fighters, with some estimates suggesting twenty thousand. They also suffered the loss of 200 warships, 93 of which sank, while the remaining vessels were captured by the united Christian fleets, which also took ten thousand men as prisoners. Despite the defeat, Admiral Kılıç Ali managed to save some of his ships, including one bearing the Pope’s flag, which he brought back to Istanbul, where he was welcomed like a conqueror, despite the prevailing sense of loss. In response, Sultan Selim II promptly promoted Kılıç Ali to the rank of commander of the Ottoman navy while retaining his position as Beylerbey of Algeria.
The Battle had a significant impact on Europe and the Ottoman Empire. For the first time since the early 15th century, the Ottomans faced defeat, leading to widespread celebration across Europe. People rejoiced and decorated their surroundings in honor of Don Juan of Austria, the commander who achieved this victory. The Pope even proclaimed a celebration at St. Peter’s Basilica, declaring that the Gospel had triumphed through Don Juan, who was heralded as a man sent by God. This naval victory was celebrated by the Christian world and its historians, to the extent that modern school dictionaries often mention Lepanto alongside Don Juan, recognizing him as the savior of Christianity from imminent danger.
The pope was greatly pleased despite his unease, as his formidable enemy remained a significant threat. He sought to exploit the suspicions of the Twelver Shia against the Ottomans by leveraging existing grievances, issues, and doctrinal differences. He sent a letter to Shah Tahmasp, the Persian king, stating that he would never find a better opportunity to attack the Ottomans, who were vulnerable to assaults from all sides. He sent for the King of Abyssinia and the Imam of Yemen to rally against the Ottoman Empire, but death caught up with him. The outcome of the Battle of Lepanto was disappointing for the Ottomans, as it diminished their dominance in the Mediterranean. With the loss of this threat, the intense fear that had once prevailed also faded, leading to a renewed vigor among Christian states to maintain a lasting holy alliance and restore their boundaries.
The significance of Lepanto was immense, marking the end of the Ottoman Empire’s invincibility, particularly at sea, which alleviated the fears of Italian and Spanish rulers and weakened the Ottoman influence on Western power dynamics. It signified a turning point, as the Ottoman forces were formidable both on land and at sea. The Christian victory at Lepanto in 1571 was crucial in shifting the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean, effectively concluding an era of ambitious naval operations that had incurred substantial costs. The Ottomans no longer contemplated adding another chapter to their maritime glory following that defeat; this setback marked the beginning of the decline of the state’s naval power.
[An Excerpt from “Ad-Dawla Al-Uthmaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Sukqoot 6/309-313]