[18] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire
In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy
The Emergence of French Ambitions in North Africa
The Battle of Lepanto presented a significant opportunity for France to pursue its ambitions in the Islamic Maghreb. Following the news of the Ottoman fleet’s defeat, King Charles IX of France proposed to the Ottoman Sultan in 1572, through his ambassador in Istanbul, a request for permission to extend French influence over Algeria and offered to pay a tribute to the Ottoman Empire in exchange. However, the Sultan rejected the French ambassador and showed no interest in the proposal. Despite this, France has persisted in its ambitions, employing various diplomatic channels to achieve its objectives, finally obtaining special privileges in the port and in other areas along the Algerian coast, as well as the authorisation of the Sultan to establish trade centers.
The Reconstruction of the Ottoman Fleet:
Grand Admiral Ali Pasha approached the task of renewing the Ottoman fleet with increasing energy and enthusiasm, hoping to make up for what had been lost, and by the summer of 1572 AH 980 preparations were already in full swing. Fifty new ships were built and Ali set sail with his fleet, which caused concern in Venice about the readiness of the fleet. Venice then sought peace with the Ottomans on humiliating terms: ceding Cyprus and paying a war indemnity of 300,000 ducats. Nevertheless, this activity was a moment of vigilance preceding a decrease in military power, since the empire became embarked on continuous wars against Austria and its allies on one front and Persia on another, and also focused on suppressing current internal uprisings.
Philip II was motivated to invade Tunisia by the appeal of Sultan Abu Abbas II, who ruled from 942 to 980 AH (1535 to 1572) and sought help to suppress uprisings. In return for considerable privileges, he asked for Spanish forces to occupy all of Tunisia and to hand over the cities of Annaba, Bizerte, and La Goulette. Although Abu Abbas declined these conditions, his brother Muhammad Ibn al-Husayn agreed to them. As a result, Don Juan departed from Sicily in Rajab 981 AH (October 1573) with a fleet of 138 ships and 25,000 soldiers. He landed at the fortress of La Goulette, which had previously been under Spanish control, and launched a surprise attack on Tunis, causing the local population to flee to the Tunis Valley to escape the Spanish threat, while the Ottoman governor retreated to Kairouan. This prompted Europe to realise that a united effort was necessary to eliminate the state.
Ali Pasha focused on equipping sailors and training them in modern firearms, which attracted the attention of foreign residents. His stature grew to the extent that the Pope advised King Philip II of Spain to entice him with a salary of ten thousand and a fief from the Kingdom of Naples or other Spanish crown properties, which would be inherited by his descendants, along with a title such as Count, Marquis, or Duke. The plan also included granting similar privileges to two of his aides. The Pope realised that if this attempt failed, it would at least raise suspicions in the Sultan regarding Ali, the only individual capable of supporting the state’s affairs. However, the attempt failed, resulting in Ali’s rage rather than drawing him closer. The integrity of the Muslim warrior could not be bought, as his service to the state was a dedication to the path of Allah, a principle that guided the state in all its conquests, and the the rapid success in various regions and fields. The Ottoman served the state with utmost loyalty, and such service was ultimately a service to Islam.
Sultan Salim II issued orders to his minister, Sinan Pasha, and Admiral Ali to prepare for a definitive campaign to conquer Tunisia and restore Ottoman influence in the region. Similar directives were sent to other provinces to prepare soldiers, ammunition, and supplies, along with two hundred eighty-three ships of various sizes. He emphasised the necessity for those stationed at Anatolia and Rumelia to participate in the maritime expedition and ensured that the required provisions for the fleet were facilitated. Furthermore, he warned that those who failed to report for duty would be dismissed from future assignments. Meanwhile, the Ottoman fleet in Tunisia, which had retreated to Kairouan, was under the command of Deputy Haydar Pasha, who rallied local fighters to the cause.
The Ottoman fleet, under the command of Sinan Pasha and Ali, set sail on the 23rd of Muharram, 982 AH / May 14, 1574, departing from the straits into the Mediterranean Sea. They approached the coast of Calabria, specifically Messina, where the Ottomans managed to capture a Christian ship. Subsequently, they crossed the sea in five days. During this period, the Ottoman governor in Tunisia, Haydar Pasha, arrived, accompanied by a force of Algerians led by Ramadan Pasha and another contingent from Tripoli under Mustafa Pasha, along with volunteers from Egypt. Fighting started in the spring of 981 AH / 1574, with the Ottomans successfully capturing Halq al-Wad after enduring a rigorous siege. Meanwhile, other forces besieged the city of Tunis, prompting the Spaniards and the Hafsid king Muhammad Ibn Al-Hasan to retreat to the Bastion, which the Spaniards had heavily fortified, making it one of the most secure strongholds in North Africa.
The Ottomans, after gathering their forces, laid siege to the city of Bastion, tightening their grip on its inhabitants from all sides. Minister Sinan personally engaged in the battle, even ordering the construction of a parapet from which he could oversee the fighting, while carrying stones and earth on his back like the soldiers. When one of the military commanders recognised him, he remarked that they needed his strategic insight more than his physical presence. Sinan replied that he did not wish to be deprived of the reward for his efforts. He intensified the siege until the Bation was successfully captured. Thereafter, the Hafsids sought protection in Sicily. The Spaniards utilised them as tools to further their political ambitions as circumstances dictated. The fall of Tunis dashed Spanish hopes in Africa, leading to a gradual decline in their control, which became limited to a few ports such as Melilla, Oran, and the Great Harbor. The dream of establishing a Spanish state in North Africa faded away.
The situation in Yemen became unstable with the rise of the Zaydi leader al-Mutahhar, who reached out to the people of Yemen and encouraged them to revolt against Ottoman control. The tribes united behind al-Mutahhar, who later entered Sana’a after achieving a significant victory over the Ottomans. Aware of the seriousness of the situation, the Ottoman government opted to send a large military campaign to Yemen. Sultan Salim II took a strong interest in this mission, as Yemen was an essential part of the Ottomans’ strategy in the Red Sea, helping to thwart Portuguese threats and serving as a fortress for the Hijaz, in addition to being a launching point for operations into the Indian Ocean.
The Ottoman minister Sinan Pasha arrived in Egypt to carry out the Sultan’s directives, gathering soldiers from different regions while leaving behind only the elders and those unable to fight. The campaign progressed to Yanbu, where he received a warm welcome from the Chief Judge of Makkah. Upon his arrival in Makkah, the local people embraced him along with the Ottoman forces. He performed acts of charity and demonstrated kindness towards the scholars of Makkah before heading to Jazan. As he approached Jazan, he was welcomed by the Zaydi Imam al-Mutahhar, and during his time there, Sinan honored the local tribes, including those from Sabya, who sought his support. Delegations representing the tribes of Yemen also came to him, pledging their loyalty and requesting his protection. He then hastened to Taiz after securing Jazan, having learned that the Ottoman governor and his troops in Taiz were in a difficult situation due to the mountain Arabs cutting off their supplies. Faced with severe shortages, he swiftly covered the distance outside Taiz and deployed his soldiers in the surrounding mountains. Upon witnessing the size of the Ottoman army, the Zaidis took refuge in a mountain known as Al-Aghbar. He, along with some of his forces, pursued the Zaidis into Al-Aghbar, leading to a confrontation where the Zaidis were ultimately defeated and they fled. In recognition of their efforts, Sinan rewarded all the Ottoman soldiers. He then organised two campaigns aimed at capturing Aden, the first by sea under the command of the renowned captain Khairuddin, while the second was overland led by Prince Hami, accompanied by some cavalry.
The Ottoman Empire’s policy shifted after the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, prioritising the protection of Islamic lands, followed by the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf as a security buffer around these locations. This necessitated a capable fleet to counter Portuguese threats. The empire successfully established a robust defense that safeguarded Islamic lands from Christian assaults. Additionally, the Sultan maintained a special Ottoman garrison in Makkah, Madina, and Yanbu, while the state set up guard stations near water wells along the route between Egypt, Syria, and Mecca to protect caravans. The governor in Jeddah was designated as the representative of the Sublime Porte in the Hejaz, a region characterised by dual authority during the Ottoman era. The state also decided to share the customs revenue collected from ships at Jeddah port between the Ottoman governor and the Sharif of Makkah.
The Mamluks: The Mamluks faced defeat in 1516/1517, marking the decline of their state as a significant Islamic power in the Middle East and beyond. They had lost their vitality and ability to rejuvenate, leading to the dissolution of their state and the transfer of their territories to Ottoman control. Egypt returned to its governance as it was earlier. Following their defeat, the Mamluk governor of Yemen, Iskandar, led a delegation to Sultan Salim to express loyalty and submission. The Ottoman Sultan agreed to retain him in his position, recognising Yemen’s strategic importance as a key to the Red Sea, where its stability ensured the safety of Makkah and Madina. During the Ottoman rule from 1538 to 1635, Yemen was marked by conflicts between the Ottomans and the Zaydi Imams, as the Ottomans struggled to establish genuine control due to persistent resistance. However, they capitalised on their presence in Yemen by launching naval campaigns aimed at liberating the region from Portuguese pressure.
In 1514, Portugal initiated a campaign against Morocco led by Prince Henry the Navigator, successfully capturing the Moroccan port of Ceuta, which marked the beginning of a series of aggressive actions. Subsequently, Portugal continued its military endeavors in North Africa, ultimately seizing Asilah, Larache, and Tangier in 1471. Portugal’s focus on the Atlantic Ocean and its attempts to circumvent the Islamic world were primarily driven by fervent crusading motives against Muslims. They viewed themselves as defenders of Christianity, believing that combating Muslims was an imperative duty and regarded Islam as a formidable adversary that needed to be confronted wherever it appeared. Prince Henry the Navigator exhibited intense zeal for Christianity and harbored deep animosity towards Muslims. He received a papal endorsement from Pope Nicholas V for all his expeditions, including those to India, emphasising his commitment to the Christian cause. The Pope expressed great satisfaction in knowing that Prince Henry, inspired by a soldierly zeal for Christ, was advancing into distant lands to spread Catholicism and confront perceived enemies of God and Christ, such as the Arabs and other non-believers.
Furthermore, Afonso de Albuquerque, in a speech to his troops upon arriving in Malacca, articulated that the Portuguese aimed to weaken Islam by disrupting Arab trade routes. In the same speech, it was stated that the significant service to be rendered to God involves expelling the Arabs from these lands and extinguishing the flame of Muhammad’s Allies, ensuring that it does not reignite hereafter. The speaker expressed confidence that if the trade of Malacca were seized from the Muslims, cities like Cairo and Makkah would become mere memories, and Venice would be deprived of spice trade unless its merchants turned to Portugal for their supplies. Their objective was to reach the sacred sites of Muslims, storm the Prophet Muhammad’s mosque, and take his remains hostage to negotiate with the Arabs for the return of Jerusalem. King Manuel I of Portugal declared the goals of the Portuguese campaigns, stating that the purpose of discovering a sea route to India was to spread Christianity and acquire the riches of the East. Thus, it becomes evident to the impartial researcher that the religious motivation behind the Portuguese explorations was a crucial factor driving Portugal to navigate the seas and encircle the Islamic world. Decrees and orders were issued, with the cross and cannons symbolising the campaigns, indicating that Muslims were expected to convert to Christianity or face the cannons. Economic motives were secondary yet influential in the course of Portuguese geographical explorations, as the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope facilitated trade routes. It is noteworthy that the Portuguese relied on some Jews during their campaigns, utilising them as spies due to their knowledge of the Arabic language. For instance, King John II of Portugal sent his personal servant along with another Jewish companion to Egypt, India, and Ethiopia, resulting in a report that included several Arabic maps of the Indian Ocean.
To achieve their objectives, Portuguese explorers and their leaders recognised the necessity of controlling the straits of Hormuz and Bab el-Mandeb to effectively launch their incursions into the Islamic world from the rear, thereby undermining the economy of Arab and Islamic regions and facilitating the spread of Christianity wherever they reached. They succeeded in their plans, managing to dominate trade routes along the African coast, the Arabian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea. The stance of Muslims regarding this aggressive invasion was complicated, as the Mamluks found themselves in a precarious situation marked by economic and political weakness. Consequently, the populations along the African coast, the Gulf, and Yemen had to fend for themselves, launching attacks on Portuguese garrisons in various locations such as East Africa, Muscat, Bahrain, Qurayyat, and Aden, albeit with little success due to the imbalance of power.
However, during the reign of Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent [927-974/ 1520-1566], the Ottoman Empire successfully expelled the Portuguese from the Red Sea and launched attacks on their established positions in the Arabian Gulf. Subsequently, he issued a decree to Sulayman Pasha, the governor of Egypt, instructing him to prepare for a military campaign in the name of Allah. The directive emphasised the need to assemble a fleet, gather supplies, and mobilize a sufficient army to seize and secure territories in India, thereby cutting off Portuguese access and removing their flag from the sea. Sulayman Pasha acted on the Sultan’s orders, reaching Jeddah within seven days, then proceeding to Kamaran, where he took control of Aden and stationed a garrison of six hundred soldiers there. The Ottomans successfully repelled the Portuguese, preventing them from encroaching on Islamic kingdoms and curtailing their activities. This achievement allowed the Ottoman Empire to secure the Red Sea and protect sacred sites from Portuguese expansion driven by colonial ambitions and ulterior motives aimed at influencing Islam and Muslims in various ways. The Ottoman Empire’s success in countering the Portuguese threat to the Islamic world deserves significant recognition. The weakened Mamluk state was on the verge of collapse and lacked the strength to resist the Portuguese invasion. The Ottomans took on the responsibility of defending Muslim rights and properties, effectively limiting the invaders’ ambitions and their access to sacred sites (Makkah, Madinah and Jerusalem) as they desired.
In contrast, the Safavid State (Rawafid Shiites) abandoned the inhabitants of the regions affected by the Portuguese invasion, leaving the cities of the Arabian Gulf to face their fate alone. Furthermore, the Safavids aligned themselves with adversaries, catering to their interests, particularly due to their sectarian conflict with the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire. Consequently, the Portuguese commander Albuquerque exploited this situation. The situation coincided with the period when Ottoman forces were advancing to confront the Safavids at the borders, leading to the Battle of Chaldiran in 920 AH / 1514, where the Persians suffered a devastating defeat against the Ottoman army. This defeat prompted the Persians to be more inclined to ally with the Portuguese against the Ottomans, presenting an invaluable opportunity for Portugal, particularly as they recognised the significant threat the Ottoman Empire posed to their security. They capitalised on their occupation of Hormuz in 921 AH / 1515 and subsequently established a direct alliance with the Safavids through a treaty that included critical provisions, such as the Portuguese fleet assisting the Shah in his campaign against Bahrain and Qatif in exchange for the Shah’s recognition of Portuguese protection over Hormuz, thereby uniting their forces against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. It is evident that the Portuguese viewed their alliance with the Safavids as a means to foster discord among Islamic states, which, if united, could have challenged their control over the Gulf, the Red Sea, Aden, and other regions under Portuguese dominance. Additionally, the Safavid-Portuguese alliance, coupled with the deteriorating political and economic situation of the Mamluk state, placed the Ottoman Empire in a position of full responsibility for the unfolding events.
An Excerpt from Ad-Dawla Al-Uthmaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Sukqoot 6/310-320