[22] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire
In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.
Sultan Mustafa I:
He ascended to power following the death of his brother in the year 1026 AH. From the onset of his reign, it became evident that foreign influence was at play in the appointment and removal of the caliphs. This sultan was deposed after just three months, and his nephew, Uthman II, who was only thirteen years old at the time, was brought to the throne.
Sultan Uthman II (1026AH-1031AH)
He ascended to the throne following the removal of his uncle, Mustafa I. At the time, he was only thirteen years old. He declared a Jihad against Poland due to its interference in the affairs of the Principality of Moldavia. A peace treaty was established between the two parties in 1029 AH / 1620 CE at the request of Poland and the Janissaries, who were weary of the ongoing conflict. The Sultan was angered by their plea for relaxation and their inclination towards idleness, which compelled him to negotiate peace with Poland. In response, he resolved to eliminate this rebellious faction. To prepare for this significant undertaking, he ordered the mobilisation of new armies in the Asian provinces, focusing on their training and organisation. He actively pursued his objective, but the Janissaries became aware of his intentions, leading to unrest and dissent among their ranks. They conspired to topple the sultan, successfully achieving this in the month of Rajab in 1031 AH (May 20, 1622 CE), reinstating Sultan Mustafa to the throne. Sultan Uthman II was subsequently killed, leaving behind a collection of poetry, among them: “My service was dedicated to my government and state, and it is astonishing that the envious conspire against my downfall”.
Sultan Mustafa ascended to the throne for the second time following the Janissary revolt, and the government became a mere puppet in their hands, as they appointed and dismissed ministers according to their whims. Positions were openly sold, and various injustices were committed. During this period, the grand viziers changed seven times within a span of one year and four months. Disputes arose among the Anatolian princes and the Sipahi faction regarding the continuity of the grand viziers, to the extent that some did not complete even a month in office. Due to the Sultan’s weakness and his inability to manage the affairs of the state, he was deposed, and Prince Murad IV, son of Sultan Ahma I, was appointed in his place.
Murad IV (1032 AH/1049AH)
He took over the sultanate following the removal of his uncle Mustafa in 1032 AH / 1622 CE. As the brother of Uthman II and due to his young age, he was subjected to the influence of the Janissaries. The state was in a dire situation, prompting him to first address internal reforms before focusing on external matters. He initiated efforts to eliminate the military tyrants responsible for the assassination of his brother, Sultan Uthman III, executing all those who had abused their power in Istanbul and throughout the empire. He established robust intelligence networks that identified all the despots within the state. During his travels, he would confront local tyrants by name and execute them.
During his reign, he prohibited alcohol and smoking, and executed all apostates from Islam. [Footnote a] In the year 1044 AH / 1634 CE, a war broke out with the Safavid Shiites in Iraq. He personally led the armies and advanced towards Baghdad, which had been seized by Abbas Shah of Persia, who had killed the Ottoman governor and humiliated the Sunni population, subjecting them to various atrocities. Murad besieged Baghdad, using artillery to demolish a significant portion of its walls, and entered the city in 1048 AH, killing twenty thousand Shiite soldiers. He then resided there for a period, restoring its buildings and repairing the damaged walls, while appointing a minister for the city. This sultan actively engaged in battles himself, mingling with his soldiers and occasionally sleeping on horseback during campaigns.
In 1640, he fell ill, and it was feared that he would die, but he recovered. He fell ill again and passed away in February 1640 due to gout. His reign lasted for 16 years and 11 months. Upon ascending to the throne, he inherited an empty treasury, which he left full at the time of his death. This sultan was known for his wisdom, bravery, and keen insight. He eradicated corruption and suppressed rebellion, earning him the title of the second founder of the state, as he revitalised it after its decline and improved its financial situation.
Sultan Ibrahim bin Ahmad (1049 – 1058 AH)
He ascended to the throne following the reign of his brother Murad, who left no male heirs. After the death of Sultan Murad IV, the only surviving member of the Ottoman lineage was his brother Sultan Ibrahim, who had been imprisoned throughout his brother’s rule. Upon learning of his brother’s passing, the high-ranking officials of the kingdom hurried to the prison to inform him. Initially, he feared they had come to execute him and did not believe their news, thus refusing to open the prison door. They were compelled to break it down and entered to congratulate him. He suspected they were attempting to deceive him to gauge his intentions and declined the offer of kingship, stating that he preferred his solitude to the throne of the world. When they failed to persuade him, his mother arrived, bringing with her the garments of his deceased brother as proof of his death. At that moment, he accepted the sultanate, ordered a grand burial for his brother, and led three of the finest horses that his brother had ridden in the Baghdad campaign before proceeding to the Mosque of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, where he was officially invested with the sultanate and proclaimed Sultan. Upon his ascension, he expressed his gratitude by saying: “Praise be to Allah, O Lord, You have deemed a weak servant like me worthy of this position! O Lord, rectify and improve the condition of my people during my reign, and let us be content with one another.”
The internal situation was relatively stable due to the reforms implemented by his brother concerning the Janissaries and the modernisation of the military. Efforts were directed towards economizing military and naval expenditures, reforming the currency, and establishing a new tax system. Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha succeeded in curbing the involvement of women in the affairs of the Sultanate. [Footnote b] He effectively countered the attempts of court officials to undermine the state and dealt decisively with those who engaged in corruption, lawlessness, and highway robbery across various provinces.
The War Against the Venetians:
The Republic of Venice exerted control over the island of Crete and dominated trade in the Aegean Sea, taking advantage of a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire. In response, the Ottomans resolved to dismantle Venetian influence in the region. They mobilised their armies and navy, declared war on the Venetians. In 1645, an expedition was launched to Crete, resulting in the capture of parts of the island. However, unrest erupted among the soldiers in Istanbul, leading to a revolt. They decided to depose Sultan Ibrahim and install his son, Muhammad IV, who was not yet seven years old, as the new ruler. Sultan Ibrahim was subsequently killed, having reigned for eight years and nine months, at the age of 34. [Ad-Dawlah al-Uthaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhud Wa Asbab As-Suqut 6/334-339]
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Footnote a: Al-Allamah Saaleh Al-Fawzaan On Those Who Are Responsible For Declaring That An Individual Has Apostised and The Only Ones Who Have The Authority to Establish the Prescribed Islamic Punishments: http://www.spubs.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=MNJ09&articleID=MNJ090004&articlePages=1
Footnote b: The author previously noted that the women associated with the princes started to meddle in issues of governance and succession for their male kin closest kin. Thus, this provides insight into the motivations behind Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha’s efforts to eliminate such interference. The empire repeatedly faced significant external threats, rendering internal stability essential for effectively tackling more urgent issues.