[26] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire
In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.
Sultan Salim III
He ascended to power following the death of his uncle, Abdul Hamid I, in 1203 AH / 1788 CE, marking the beginning of a new phase in the conflict between the Ottoman Empire and its adversaries. He initiated efforts to revive the morale of his troops, drawing upon the historical achievements of the Ottoman state and its heroic deeds. During his accession to the throne, the Sultan delivered an impassioned speech to the state leaders, highlighting the victories of the Ottoman armies over their enemies in the past. He addressed the reasons for their recent defeats, attributing them to a departure from their faith and a failure to adhere to their book and the teachings of their Prophet. He urged them to embrace sacrifice and strive against their foes, to rely on Allah, obey their leaders, and to resist the enemies who had seized Muslim lands and killed or imprisoned thousands, until the state could reclaim Crimea from them.
His fervor for Jihad: [Footnote a]
His eagerness for Jihad compelled him to dismiss the peace initiatives proposed by the ambassadors from Spain, France, and Prussia. He directed the Grand Vizier, Yusuf Pasha, to undertake the necessary preparations to confront the state’s adversaries. He acknowledged the suffering endured by his people due to the ongoing defeats faced by the Ottoman Empire. In a bid to mitigate the rising anger and dissatisfaction, he rejected the peace proposals and resolved to personally lead an army towards the Danube. Additionally, he raised the soldiers’ salaries and offered extra bonuses that surpassed those provided during his predecessor’s rule. He understood the importance of fortifying his position by appointing his long-time associate, Hussain Pasha al-Karidli, as the commander of the Ottoman fleet. He reassigned the former commander, Hassan Pasha, to lead the land forces in Moldavia and appointed him as the governor of Ismail, while also entrusting him with the mission of reclaiming Ozi and advancing overland towards Crimea. The shifts in military leadership were influenced by various factors. On one side, Commander Hasan Pasha was in disagreement with Grand Vizier Yusuf Pasha, as he felt that declaring war on Russia was poorly timed and that comprehensive preparations were essential before engaging in battle. Conversely, the failure of the Ottoman army, under Hasan Pasha’s leadership, to recover Ozi within the stipulated timeframe adversely affected the Sultan’s morale, leading him to contemplate a change in command. Nevertheless, the most logical explanation for this decision was that the new commander was a close confidant of the Sultan, which provided a solid foundation for his appointment as Grand Vizier and bolstered his position against both internal and external threats.
He was in a situation that required him to face his enemies. To handle this, he gave his Grand Vizier, Yusuf Pasha, the task of managing Wallachia and protecting Belgrade from possible threats in the Kuban region. The goal was to stir up the Caucasus against Russia and help the Ottoman Empire take back Crimea. The Grand Vizier felt motivated by the Sultan’s trust in him and was confident that success was near as he aimed to achieve the goals set by the state.
The Defeat of the Ottoman Armies: Russian and Austrian troops bolstered their defenses and gathered their forces near Belgrade and Moldavia. The Grand Vizier could not drive the enemies away from Belgrade, resulting in the Sultan replacing him with Hasan Pasha. Yusuf Pasha faced a series of defeats against the Russian general Suvorov and the Austrian commander Coburg.
The Sultan was set on taking back Crimea and defeating his enemies. He knew he needed to rebuild the army and instructed the Grand Vizier to take action for military growth and reforms. He also planned to send troops to the battlefield. To aid these efforts, he wanted to create a friendship treaty with Sweden, promising to pay certain amounts each year for ten years in return for Sweden’s support against Russia from the north. Both sides agreed to keep working together in the war against Russia and not to sign any peace deal with others without informing each other.
European countries had different views on these treaties: Russia was in favour of the treaty because it was influenced by Selim III to keep fighting, worried it might also be targeted by Russia. France opposed the treaty since it did not fit with its political goals. Britain had a mixed stance; it accepted the treaty and wanted a strong Ottoman Empire but did not want to support the Ottomans against Russia or Austria. This behavior from European nations is understandable, as their relationships with the Ottoman Empire were driven by self-interest. Even those who wanted a strong Ottoman presence did so not out of goodwill, but to achieve political aims related to the balance of power in Europe and to safeguard their economic interests, both in the Ottoman Empire and beyond.
The Sultan remained optimistic about his mission, despite the challenges posed by European events affecting the empire’s policies and its presence in Europe. He believed that with effective leadership, his army could succeed. As a result, he ordered the mobilisation of forces through Moldavia and Wallachia, advancing his troops to the River Rimnik, close to Nema’s borders. However, the Russian and Austrian armies unexpectedly attacked the Ottoman forces, achieving a significant victory. This battle, known as the Battle of Yozza or Rimnik, took place by the river and had serious consequences for the Ottoman Empire. It hindered their military organisation and led to a series of defeats, forcing a retreat towards the eastern Danube. This allowed the Austrians to lift the siege of Belgrade, paving the way for allied forces to push the Ottomans out of Europe.
The Crusades against the Ottoman territories in late 1789 were some of the most destructive events in the border areas between the two sides. As a result, the time after these battles saw two main developments. First, there was an increase in diplomatic efforts and religious and political movements in Europe that indicated a looming threat. This led stronger nations to push for peace and call for an end to the fighting between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. At the same time, the French Revolution was approaching, and its effects were becoming more apparent across Europe. This situation created a strong feeling among European countries, including Russia, that it was time to show support for the Ottoman Empire, fueled by concerns over the rising Napoleonic revolution and France’s influence in Europe.
The second aspect focuses on the new military actions and changes that arose from the repeated losses faced by the Ottoman Empire before and after the Battle of Yozgat. These defeats caused frustration and anger among the people, prompting demands for reform and the removal of the Grand Vizier. As time went on, the Ottoman state continued to weaken due to further defeats. With the French Revolution, European nations saw the need to form a treaty with the Ottoman Empire to unite against Napoleon’s expansion and the French interests that threatened their own goals in Ottoman lands. This diplomatic effort led to the signing of the important Treaty of Zsitvatorok on the 22nd of Dhul-Hijjah in the year 1205 AH, which corresponds to August 4, 1791 CE. After achieving their goal, they faced the second stage, which was to stop the Ottoman-Russian war. Without this, the situation in Europe would be at risk due to Napoleon’s adventures or Russia’s dominance over the Ottoman Empire, posing a threat to Europe. The events affecting the Ottoman Empire weakened its power and impacted its campaigns in Europe. This put them in a position where they were willing to agree to any terms for peace. These events aided the mediators, who, after negotiations with both Russia and the Ottoman Empire, managed to sign a peace treaty in the city of Iași on January 9, 1792.
One important part of this treaty was the exchange of prisoners of war. It also allowed people from their home country, who were living abroad due to political issues, to choose whether to go back home or stay where they were. The Ottoman Empire gave Russia the port of Azov, the Crimean lands, the Taman Peninsula, and the areas of Koyan, Yessentuki, and the regions between the Bug and Dniester rivers, with the last month marking the border between the two nations. In exchange, Russia returned the areas of Bessarabia, Akkerman, Kili, and Ismail to the Ottoman Empire, provided that the Ottoman state would not tax the people of Bessarabia and would not ask for war reparations or similar payments from Russia. The Sublime Porte also banned its people from attacking Russian territories like Tiflis and Katelina, as well as Russian ships in the Mediterranean, and agreed to pay for any damages caused by its subjects. The treaty effectively ended the Russo-Turkish War and achieved the objectives of European nations, primarily halting the conflict during a period when Europe was grappling with the upheaval of the Napoleonic Wars and fearing its impact on their governance. Consequently, the hopes of the Ottoman Empire were dashed, along with the loss of territories under its influence, leading to the Black Sea falling under Russian control. Ottoman ports such as Azov, Odessa, and Sevastopol became bases for the Russian fleet, while major river mouths like the Danube, Bug, Dniester, and Prut were placed under Russian navigation authority. Thus, this treaty significantly reduced the territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire in Europe and simultaneously conferred a legal status of concession regarding its gains to its adversaries.
European nations took significant steps that contributed to the break up of the Ottoman Empire in the region, effectively bringing an end to numerous projects advocated by intellectuals. For centuries, European thinkers had opposed the Ottoman state, while Crusader forces, colonial powers, and Jewish interests worked diligently and systematically towards their common goal. It resembled a global consortium where European founders exchanged glances of agreement; despite their differences, they united in their animosity towards the Ottomans, each eager to undermine, destroy, and absorb the empire.
The Treaty of Bucharest may have temporarily halted the Russo-Ottoman confrontations, but it essentially marked the beginning of a more tragic decline than the previous one. Following the cessation of hostilities, Salim III focused on internal reforms, initiating the restructuring of the military to eliminate the Janissaries, who had become a source of unrest. He sought to emulate Europe, which had advanced significantly, emphasizing shipbuilding and weaponry, particularly cannons in the French style, while also witnessing the early stages of Western military education during his reign. The Sultan’s initiatives for reform and the establishment of the new military corps provoked the Janissaries, who were supported by the notables against the new system. Although the Sultan issued a decree to abolish the new military structure, the rebels opted to depose the caliph, leading to the ascension of his cousin, Mustafa IV, who was controlled by those who appointed him to the throne. Subsequently, imperial decrees were issued to dismantle the new system along with all associated schools, institutions, and reforms. Despite these measures, his reign faced significant challenges that ultimately resulted in his overthrow.
The French Crusader Invasion of the Ottoman State in Egypt (1213 AH / 1798 AD): The enemies of Islam took advantage of the decline of the Ottoman Empire, with France exploiting this weakness by launching its famous campaign led by Napoleon Bonaparte. This campaign echoed the French Revolution and was influenced by its revolutionary ideas. Napoleon was accompanied by a significant number of French intellectuals, totaling 122. The intellectual influences on these people were predominantly shaped by the French efforts to reform the Catholic Church and their opposition to Protestant reform movements since the early sixteenth century. Prior to their arrival in the East, they were also impacted by the ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu, prominent thinkers of the French Revolution, who were associated with Jewish Masonic lodges and advocated for principles such as liberty, fraternity, and equality. These concepts collectively oppose religion and its derived ideas. Therefore, it is simplistic to accept the historical narrative that the primary aim of this campaign was solely to undermine British interests in the East, as such a goal would not necessitate the mobilisation of a vast number of intellectuals. Alongside this, there was the ambition to establish a French empire in the East to satisfy the aspirations of the bourgeois class that had risen to power after the revolution, as well as to appease the Church, which, despite suffering some setbacks from the revolution that diminished its influence in France, continued to wield significant power over many French citizens and played a crucial role in bolstering French influence in its colonies and the Islamic East. Thus, the objectives of the campaign were a complex amalgamation of various interests.
An Excerpt from Ad-Dawlah al-Uthaniyyah Awamil An-Nuhud Wa Asbab As-Suqut 6/352-360
Footnote a:
https://abukhadeejah.com/salafi-shaikh-fawzaan-on-jihaad-in-our-times-and-the-guidelines-of-jihaad-according-to-islam/