[29] The Ascent and Decline of The Ottoman Empire
In The name of Allah, The Most Merciful, The Bestower of Mercy.
European powers urged Sultan Mahmud II to utilise his army to quell the rebellion in Greece. They advised Muhammad Ali to accept this mission, misleading him into believing that he could become the most prominent leader in the region, potentially positioning him as the Caliph of Muslims once the authority of the caliphate was diminished. He accepted Sultan Mahmud II’s offer on the condition that he would gain control over both Crete and Greece. Upon receiving the news of acceptance regarding this condition, he instructed his son Ibrahim Pasha to take charge of the Morea campaign. Consequently, the Egyptian forces, led by Ibrahim Pasha and his advisor, they set sail from Alexandria in 1823 CE (1339 AH) towards Crete and the Morea Peninsula, the epicenter of the rebellion. They captured Navarino in 1824 CE (1240 AH) and entered Athens in 1823 CE (1241 AH), despite the support provided to the Greek Crusaders by the English naval commander Lord Cochrane. After they successfully quelled the Greek Crusader uprising, the European Crusaders revealed their true intentions by declaring their protection over Greece.
Furthermore, Russia openly supported the Greek rebellion, seizing the opportunity to advance towards Istanbul, aiming to restore it as a center of pagan Crusader influence, with the English siding with Russia. Russia was granted the right to navigate the Black Sea and allowed its ships to pass through the Ottoman straits without inspection. Russia had the right to navigate the Black Sea and to pass its ships through the Ottoman straits without inspection. Although the treaty was established in response to the Greek insurrection, shortly thereafter, England requested the Ottoman Empire in Rajab 1344 AH / 1828 CE to mediate, citing that this was a blatant interference in its internal affairs, without mentioning anything about the declaration of war once again. The request was denied, and this refusal became a pretext for Europe. Russia, France, and England reached an agreement on the 11th of Dhul-Hijjah to compel the Ottoman Empire to grant independence to Greece, effectively separating it from the Ottoman state. The Ottoman Sultan, however, refused to comply. In response, the European powers ordered their fleets to proceed to the shores of Greece and requested Ibrahim Pasha to cease hostilities. His response was predictable, as he stated that he received orders only from the Caliph of Muslims or from his father, not from any other authority. Nevertheless, the fighting was halted for twenty days while he awaited further instructions.
The allied European forces entered the port of Nuwarin without raising the banners of war, thus their entry was one of deception. These fleets launched a surprise attack on the joint Ottoman-Egyptian fleet, betraying it and opening fire, resulting in a significant defeat. The ships were sunk in an unexpected turn of events, which had not been anticipated or accounted for. As a consequence of this treacherous battle, the situation shifted dramatically, leaving the Ottoman forces in a position of weakness and defeat, in stark contrast to their previous state of strength and victory. European nations received this incident with expressions of joy and delight. More than thirty thousand soldiers from Muhammad Ali’s army were killed, thus fulfilling the adversaries’ plan, which weakened Muhammad Ali’s forces and separated a portion of the Islamic territories from the Ottoman Empire. France and England engaged in a dual action, encouraged the Sultan to dispatch an army to suppress the rebellion in Greece, only to subsequently eliminate that very army.
When Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, observed the situation he was in, he instructed his son to withdraw. The French forces then occupied the positions left by Muhammad Ali’s retreating army. Subsequently, France and England convened a conference in which they decided to separate Greece from the Ottoman Empire, stipulating that it would be governed by a Christian ruler selected by the three nations. British and French politicians perceived that allowing Muhammad Ali to direct his armies towards Syria and then Anatolia would serve their interests in countering the increasing Russian influence within the territories of the Ottoman Empire. This strategy was welcomed by Muhammad Ali, as it aligned with the objectives of his British superiors. Supporting this perspective is the fact that England strongly opposed Muhammad Ali’s initiation of the French proposal to invade Algeria on their behalf, which occurred a year prior to his campaign in Syria. They threatened him with an attack on his fleet and army should he proceed with such an operation, prompting him to withdraw despite having previously entered into an agreement with the French regarding this matter. This situation underscores that Muhammad Ali abandoned the occupation of Algeria due to British pressure and their strategic plans, which ultimately aided Britain in hindering the growing Russian influence in the region. Nevertheless, he endeavored to conceal the true nature of his role, resorting to superficial justifications for his assault on Syria, such as the sheltering of six thousand Egyptian deserters by Abdullah Pasha, the governor of Acre, who refused to return them, as well as Abdullah Pasha’s extortion of the pasha’s merchants.
Muhammad Ali wrote to the Porte informing them of his attack on Abdullah Pasha. In response, the Grand Vizier indicated the extent of the weakness of the Ottoman state and its inability to confront Muhammad Ali. He stated that the complaints of certain merchants could not justify the use of force, igniting conflict, or war. Furthermore, he emphasised that disputes arising between neighboring pashas could not be resolved through the display of weapons but required intervention from the Porte. Mohammed Ali was not convinced by the Grand Vizier’s statements and sent his armies, led by his son Ibrahim Pasha. The Maronites supported Mohammed Ali’s forces and stood by him, while the French encouraged the Christian Maronites to ally with Ibrahim Pasha, providing them with arms. The Christians of the Levant declared Ibrahim Pasha as their ally and expressed their full readiness to assist him. Furthermore, Ibrahim Pasha abolished all restrictions imposed on Christians and Jews in every territory he controlled, under the pretext of equality and freedom.
Although Ibrahim Pasha’s army succeeded in defeating the Ottoman forces and extended its control over the Levant, the Ottomans managed to incite the local population against Ibrahim Pasha. They exploited various factors, both religious and economic, particularly after Ibrahim Pasha imposed restrictions on Muslims while granting extensive freedoms to Christians and Jews. This situation ultimately culminated in the signing of the London Agreement in 1840, which defined the Egyptian presence in the Levant as contingent upon the life of Muhammad Ali. The stages of Muhammad Ali’s occupation of the Levant underscored his antagonistic stance towards Muslims, while simultaneously supporting Christians and Jews. Furthermore, it highlighted his role as an executor of British political objectives and a facilitator of French cultural aims in the region. Ibrahim Pasha opened the doors wide for the entry of French and American missionary missions. He abolished all exceptional laws and regulations that had applied solely to Christians. Some scholars consider the year 1834 to be a significant turning point in history, marked by the announcement of the Jesuits and the expansion of American missions. The American missionary printing press was relocated from Malta to Beirut, and a girls’ school was established in Beirut by Eli Semen and his wife. Additionally, several monasteries were equipped with other printing presses as part of European countries’ efforts to restrict printing capabilities to Christians alone, thereby enabling them to achieve their objectives while limiting Muslims’ ability to express their opinions or disseminate their ideas in this regard.
The entry of Muhammad Ali Pasha’s armies into the Levant marked a significant turning point for missionary activities. The reestablishment of the “Ain Tura” college, which still exists today, played a crucial role in developing a cadre of writers and thinkers. Simultaneously, an educational policy was implemented among Muslims aimed at promoting nationalism among the people of the Levant. To oversee this initiative, a Frenchman named Clot Bey was brought from Egypt, having gained experience in its application there. He was provided with a complete printing press to facilitate the publication of Arabic books, aiding him in achieving his objectives. Through these methods, alongside the collaboration of missionary organizations and clergy in monasteries, he was able to transform educational practices within a few years and advance the goals of French Masonic lodges in their campaign against Islam and Muslims. As Muhammad Ali’s armies were empowering Christians in the Levant and weakening the position of Muslims in the region, French forces invaded Algeria in 1830, taking advantage of the weakened Ottoman Empire. The French contingent consisted of approximately 28,000 soldiers, supported by a fleet of one hundred ships, including three vessels carrying 27,000 naval troops. European nations endorsed this blatant act of aggression, as the time had come to divide the spoils of the “sick man of Europe” and resolve the Eastern Question in a manner consistent with European interests.
We find ourselves questioning the position of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, during the French occupation of Algeria. Why did he remain silent? Was it due to a lack of resources to support the struggle of the Muslim Algerian people, or was Algeria simply too distant for him to intervene? Alternatively, could it be that his silence came at a cost, perhaps in exchange for assurances from European powers, including France, that he would retain his governorship in Egypt while being given the opportunity to annex the Levant, among other shadowy promises made behind closed doors? He was perceived as a tool and a poisoned dagger utilised by adversaries to execute their schemes. Consequently, they supported him in his scientific, economic, and military reforms, having recognised the fragility of his Islamic foundations, as well as those of his associates and soldiers. As a result of his influence in the region, European nations became acutely aware of the Ottoman Empire’s declining strength, which in turn prepared them for the eventual division of its territories when the political circumstances became favorable.
Following the defeat of the Ottoman armies by Muhammad Ali’s forces in the Levant and Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire was compelled to seek assistance from Russia, having realized that Muhammad Ali enjoyed the support of Britain and France. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi in 1833, which was established after the armistice of Kütahya. The treaty functioned as a defensive alliance between Russia and the Ottomans, prompting both Britain and France to act swiftly against Muhammad Ali to prevent further Russian intervention. Consequently, the London Convention of 1840 was imposed upon him. These developments ultimately thwarted the reform efforts that Sultan Mahmud II had initiated within the Ottoman Empire, forcing the state to accept the guardianship of European powers in exchange for protection against Muhammad Ali’s ambitions. The policies implemented by Muhammad Ali were a calculated maneuver by the adversaries of Islam to prepare the entire region for a colonial phase, the repercussions of which continue to afflict the nation to this day. The European Christian agenda successfully achieved the following objectives through its loyal agent, Muhammad Ali:
[1] The dismantling of the First Saudi State, which posed a significant threat to British ambitions in the Arabian Gulf and the broader Eastern region.
[2] The establishment of institutions hostile to Islam and Muslims, including Masonic lodges, missionary organizations, monasteries, churches, and schools, which sowed the seeds of nationalist movements antagonistic to Islam and propagated ideas detrimental to the interests of the Islamic community.
[3] Providing opportunities for European commercial enterprises to dominate the economy.
[4] Granting extensive privileges to Europeans while denying those same privileges to the local populations of Egypt and the Levant.
[5] Restricting scholars and jurists, and preventing Muslims from uniting for their noble objectives.
[6] Muhammad Ali emerged as a model for European nations in cultivating their agents within Muslim territories, akin to Mustafa Kemal and others.
After the European nations achieved their objectives through their agent Muhammad Ali, it became necessary to weaken and constrain his forces. Their goals had been met, and thus, the focus shifted to diminishing Muhammad Ali’s military power. The British engaged in conflict alongside Muhammad Ali’s troops and, with the support of the people of Greater Syria, succeeded in defeating his forces and seizing control of the Syrian frontiers. In these battles, three-quarters of the population from Egypt and the Levant perished, compelling Muhammad Ali to sign the treaty under the pressure exerted by the British. He renounced the governance of the Levant, ensuring that the rule of Egypt remains hereditary for himself and his descendants. The Egyptian army was to be limited to eighteen thousand troops and Egypt was not to construct ships for the fleet. The governor of Egypt shall not appoint any officer in the army with a rank higher than lieutenant etc.
France and England began to incite sectarian strife (from 1841 to 1860) among the non-Muslim minorities in Lebanon, with the aim of weakening the Ottoman Empire, which dispatched forces to quell the unrest. This also served to justify French and British intervention in Lebanon, paving the way for its fragmentation and occupation. Russia occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, leading to an Ottoman-Russian agreement in Balta Liman, near Istanbul, in 1265 AH (June 1848), which allowed for the presence of an Ottoman-Russian army in the regions until stability was restored. What role did the Russians play in this matter? Through this cunning, Christians established a military presence in the lands of Islam.
The competition among European nations intensified over the division of the Ottoman Empire, a legacy of the ailing state. The countries most concerned with the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its territories included: 1. Britain, which sought to secure its trade routes to the Far East, particularly India, and to ensure its commercial interests through the Suez Canal, the Red Sea, or via the Arabian Gulf and the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. 2. The Russian Empire, which aimed to establish a passage from the Black Sea to the warm waters of the Mediterranean by seizing Constantinople and the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, thereby aspiring to exert significant influence in the Balkans and to establish a major Slavic state in the region. France, which took upon itself early on the responsibility of safeguarding the interests of Catholic Christians in the Levant, particularly the Maronites in Lebanon, sought to protect its own interests in this region. Additionally, it aimed to extend its influence over the territories of other nations along the North African coast, specifically in Tunisia and Algeria. Aside from the three primary countries mentioned, other nations such as Austria and Prussia expressed concern regarding the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which was anticipated to face demise and dissolution, earning it the moniker of the “sick man of Europe.” Several factors contributed to the emergence of the Eastern Question into the global arena, including:
[1] The route through which Russia can access warm waters is the one connecting the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara, then to the Aegean Sea, and finally to the Mediterranean Sea, which involves passing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, both of which are under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
[2] The great powers that establish strong bases in the Black Sea and gain control over the straits acquire a significant position that enables them to extend their influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin and the trade routes from the Mediterranean to India and the Far East.
[3] The state that extends its influence into the Balkans exerts control over the Balkan peoples following the decline of Ottoman authority in the region. This position also grants it a significant advantage, enabling it to potentially seize Constantinople itself, thereby threatening the international balance of power. During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the policies of various nations—excluding Russia and France—focused on preserving the integrity of the Ottoman Empire due to the factors previously mentioned.
Britain was at the forefront of nations committed to preserving the integrity of the Ottoman Empire at that time. However, as the opportunity arose to fill the void created by the diminishing Ottoman influence in the Balkans, she, along with other countries, abandoned the principle of maintaining the Ottoman state. They actively sought to resolve the majority of this issue by supporting the independence of Balkan states. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Balkan nations included Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia were disassociated from the Ottoman Empire.
An Excerpt from ‘Ad-Dawlah Al-Uthmaaniyyah Awaamil An-Nuhood Wa Asbaab As-Suqoot. 6/406 -415